3D Printing/Printable version

3D Printing

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History

Origins

In 1982 modern 3D Printing was devised by Dr. Hideo Kodama.

In Charles Hull invented sterolithography in 1984. Scott Crump would invent FDM (FFF) printing in 1989.

Starting in 2004 the Open Source Rep Rap project resulted in a number of derivative commercial printers being made that were more affordable then previous offerings.

• 
  The first RepRap printed RepRap part in 2006.
• 
  The first replicated RepRap printer.
• 
  A RepRap 0.1 printing.
• 
  A RepRap Darwin in 2007 or earlier.

Adoption

The then cheap and open source 3D printers offered by Makerbot caught the public imagination around 2010. In 2012 Makerbot stopped open sourcing hardware and soon was acquired by Stratasys, where it would soon cease manufacturing their own printers in 2016.

The 3D printer market contracted a bit in 2015. Budget Creality printers became popular during this time.

In the 2010's, both LulzBot and Prusa operated their own commercial scale printer farms to produce parts for their commercial 3D Printers.

In 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic, makers used tools like 3D printers to produce millions of PPE parts while supply lines were disrupted.

• 
  Makerbot founders with Makerbot CupCake prototype in 2009.
• 
  A 3D printer for sale in a supermarket in 2016.
• 
  3D printers at a hackathon in 2016.

Printer Types

Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF)

FFF printers operate by melting material from an extruder to produce a 3D object.

FFF printers are known for being easier to use than other printing technologies, partly due to requiring less safety equipment for operation. Cartesian FFF 3D printers work by moving an extruder along an X, Y, and Z, axis.

On Stratasys 3D printers the name FDM is used for the same technique.

• 
  A Prusa i3, a common cartesian FFF 3D printer. Cartesian 3D printers have a cuboid build area.
• 
  A Fisher Delta RepRap 3D Printer. The build area on a delta printer is a cylinder with a conic top.

Stereolithography (SLA)

SLA printers use light to solidify a special liquid.

Unlike an FFF printer, SLA printers build time is based on height and not the number of prints or object complexity, so the entire x and y build area can be used for prints with no impact on printing time. Unlike FFF printers, SLA printers typically print upside down, though this has little tangible effect on the final print. SLA printers can be difficult to operate.

• 
  A Formlabs Form2 SLA 3D Printer.
• 
  Form 2 curing equipment. SLA prints require curing following the print process.

Selective laser sintering (SLS)

SLS works by fuzing powders together with a laser to create 3D objects.

Uniquely, SLS printers requires no dedicated support structures for complex geometries.

• 
  An SLS 3D Printer.

Printer Specs

Introduction

You may have read about how 3D printers can do amazing things in the news, like print houses, cars, or human organs. While these things are possible, they depend on both the technology used by the 3D printer and the skill of the operator. As of 2020 most consumer 3D printers top out at printing high quality plastics at up to a quarter of a meter cubed on the high end.

With that said, there are a number of factors in a 3D printer that can make printing easier, faster, and more enjoyable. Furthermore as a technology seeing slow but steady continued advancement, capabilities of printers continue to improve over time. With the open nature of many printers, those with a deep understanding of the field can push printers beyond their expected capabilities and achieve superior results.

Enclosures & Structure

A heated enclosure can assist the printing of certain materials.

Safety benefits

3D printers with enclosures typically reduce the amount of particles exposed to the operator. Enclosures also help reduce the chance of accidental contact with moving or hot parts.

Computer

An early 3D printer controller.

3D printers use a built in computer to precisely control internal printer operation. The board containing the computer will determine things like a printer's ability to connect to a network, expansion headers, and what firmware can be run on the printer.

3D printer microcontrollers are typically either simple and reliable 8-bit microcontrollers, or more capable and complex 32 bit ones. A more capable controller used with software that leverages it's features can allow the 3D printer to handle more of it's tasks independently of a host computer, as well as potentially operate the 3D printer faster while achieving greater print quality.

Drivers

Many 3D printer controller boards include built in drivers, though some use external drivers. High quality drivers can improve motor operation to be more efficient and thus reduce printer noise.

Motors

Most 3D printers use stepper motors for to move parts with percision.

Rarely, servo motors are used in special 3D printers to allow feedback to control systems. However their high cost, increased complexity, and reduced reliability makes stepper motors the typical choice for most 3D printers.

Print head

A printer head in operation. The pyramidal part directly above the print is the nozzle.

A part cooling fan can help improve print results with some materials.

The nozzle used has an impact on print resolution.

Some nozzles are made out of exotic materials like ruby to enhance their durability.

Bed

Magnetic plates, flexible beds, and Bed coatings can make them easier to print with, but also require special care to keep them working well.

Autoleveling

Some 3D printers can probe the print bed prior to printing and autolevel it. This makes setup simpler, and much less tedious.

Heated Bed

A heated bed is handy for reducing part warping, a common problem when printing on an unheated bed.

Filament sensor

Filament sensors are used to allow the printer to detect jams, empty filament spools, and other quality control features.

Camera

A camera can produce timelapse videos such as this.

When used with specialized software, a dedicated camera can create intriguing time lapses of prints.

Materials

Plastics

3D Printer materials come in a variety of colors and physical properties.

FFF 3D printers typically accept a filament of a certain diameter.

Some FFF 3D printers are modified to use pellets for ease of using recycled material.

PLA

PLA is a common 3D printing material. It's inexpensive and easy to use, making it a good choice as a starter material for beginners, and a general material for more advanced operators.

Compared to using ABS, a typical FFF printer using PLA should emit less particles.

ABS

A spool of ABS filament.

ABS is cheap and strong but needs the right environment to print well.

Compared to using PLA, a typical FFF printer using ABS should emit more particles. Ventilation should be used when printing ABS.

HIPS

HIPS is a good starting material due to its ease of use and because it is not expensive.

PETG

PETG prints are externally similar to ABS prints despite their different chemical makeup. PETG is less volatile than ABS, remaining stable under a wider range of printing environments.

PETG can't be directly printed on a glass bed. An intermediate material like tape must be used.

Nylon

A spool of nylon filament, with printed example object on top.

Nylon 3D prints are known for being somewhat flexible and durable.

Nylon can also be dyed to produce different color materials.

Nylon can be temperamental and difficult to work with.

Flexible

Flexible filaments are expensive to buy and temperamental to use, but gives prints unique properties, allowing them to deform slightly. These filaments tend to jam, and are best used on direct drive printers.

Ideal Support Materials

Support material is used to temporarily hold up objects while printing.

PVA

PVA is water soluble, so PVA material melts in water while leaving the primary plastic intact. This makes it ideal for support material when used in a dual extruder or a multi material printer, since supports can be dissolved instead of manually removed.

Composite Materials

Composite materials mix a printable material with a material that typically can't be printed, giving it unique properties, as well as unique challenges.

Composite Examples

• Magnetic Iron PLA - Can attract strong magnets and rust.
• Conductive PLA - Prints are electrically conductive and can carry small currents for simple electronics or to enable parts to trigger touchscreens.

Resins

SLA printers use liquid resin, instead of filaments.

These resins can usually be colored with dye.

Exotic Materials

3D printers geared towards directly printing in exotic materials exist.

It is often a better idea to try 3D printing a mold in a conventional material and then using that mold to make the end product.

3D printing food in particular has unique challenges, as the food must be printed in a way that avoids contamination and is safe to eat.

• Food
  • Chocolate
  • Pizza Ingredients (Dough, Sauce and Cheese)
• Metal
• Sandstone

• 
  3D printed jewelry.
• 
  3D printed cookies.
• 
  A 3D Printed sugar cube.

Material Storage

When possible FFF filaments should be kept in a drybox to avoid contamination of material from humidity and dust. If this is impractical, a dust filter can also be used on the filament feed.

Models

An 3D model of a sphericon.

Creation

Manual

It is possible to design a 3D model from the ground up for 3D printing using standard 3D software.

3D Scanning

3D Scanning through techniques such as photogrammetry can be used to duplicate real world objects.

• 
  A 3D Scanner that photographs objects as they move on a turntable.
• 
  A less common but quicker scanner type uses a chamber filled with cameras that surround the subject.

Editing

Some models, such as those created by 3D scanning, require cleanup before they can be printed.

3D models on a computer can represent things that are impossible to recreate in reality. Thus for a model to be 3D printable, it must represent an actual object, without errors in an object that would cause the interior of the model to not be watertight.

File Formats

STL

.stl has become a defacto standard for many 3D printer slicer programs.

3MF

3MF is an open source format that offers a number of improvements over .stl, such as being more error resistant and including color information.

Related Wikibooks

• Blender 3D: Noob to Pro
• Wings 3D

Slicing Software

Cura, a common slicer, running on a laptop.

Slicers

A slicer converts a 3D model of an object into layers that a 3D printer can understand.

Many slicers include convenience features. A common example includes printer and material presets. Some FFF slicers include uncommon features that help with complex geometry and print reliability.

SLA slicers produce different support structures from FFF slicers.

Infill

Infill examples.

Infill determines the amount of material on the inside of a print.

A number of creative infill patterns can be used for different purposes, such as 3D infills and gradient infills.

GCode

Many 3D printers use GCode for instructions on operation. However not all generated GCode is the same.

There are a number of software packages oriented around GCode. Some software analyses GCode and provides helpful information about a print. GCode post processors can improve print speed and quality. Non-planar GCode can also improve 3D printing results.

Slicer features

Some slicing software supports features that improve build adhesion, such as a sacrificial brim or raft.

Layer height

Some slicers support variable layer height, allowing for the printer to slow down on detail heavy areas for better quality, and speed up printing for less detailed areas.

Pausing

Some slicers allow prints to be paused to allow operators to swap materials partway through, or to add things like magnets to the internals of the print.

Color Printing

Methods of 3D printing in color

One way to achieve color 3D printing is to use a multimaterial printer. This requires loading different color materials into the printer, as well as setting up the model(s) and printer software correctly.

One solution to color FFF 3D prints is to simply place markers along the feed of a white filament.

Failing anything, color can be added in post processing steps, such as by painting the print.

Gallery

• 
  A multicolor print made on a FFF printer.
• 
  A multicolor print made by a printer designed to print in color.
• 
  A MultiMaterial upgrade for Prusa printers.
• 
  A color sandstone 3D print.

Post Processing

General Post Processing Techniques

Sanding is commonly used on 3D prints to smooth prints or remove small imperfections.

Acrylic paint, model paint, nail polish, markers, and spray paint are common ways to add color to a print.

Salt annealing and plaster annealing can give parts a unique finish, and alter strength properties of a print. Annealing techniques may be effective to improve prints with slight warping.

A 3D pen can be used on its own as seen here, but can also be used to add small details after printing.

Process Specific Techniques

Post Processing is mandatory for most SLA prints, as extra resin must be removed and desired resin must be hardened.

Prints made with ABS plastic can be smoothed with careful application of an acetone vapor.

Maintenance

Introduction

3D printers are complex machines that require maintenance to operate efficiently.

Diagrams

Axis Alignment

On the left is a properly lubricated and axis aligned printer. On the right is a printer without recent lubrication and misaligned axis, resulting in print errors.

Tension and Backlash

Proper belt tension is essential for accurate prints. A slacking belt, known as backlash, will result in less accurate printing along a given axis.

Build Plates

A properly leveled build plate is essential for adhesion. A slight slant in relation to the extruder will result in significant enough differences in height by the extremes of the build area to cause a print to fail. Leveling a build plate prior to printing is a common task, and one should get used to doing so on models of printers without automatic plate leveling. Fortunately, time is typically the only cost with build plate leveling.

A warped build plat can also cause errors. This is less easy to correct, and depending on the level of warp and the plate material, a replacement plate is sometimes needed.

Calibration

Improper calibration can result in first layer issues. Printing too low on a plate will result in too thin a first layer, causing issues. Printing too high over the plate will result in the print not having a solid base, likely failing as a result.

Poorly calibrated FFF printers are prone to producing a defect in prints known as "Elephant's Foot". This results in a base which is slightly larger then the layers above it. This issue is important for prints where aesthetics and precision are important. For some less important prints (IE: Simple decorations), this defect may be acceptable. However correcting this may still help avoid other more serious calibration issues.

Applications

Rapid Prototyping

When making prototypes, having quick tangible feedback is of great importance for spotting facets of a work which are not immediately clear on paper or in computer models.

One off production

When producing just one or a few items, the inherent inefficiencies of 3D printing matter much less, especially if the properties of 3D printed materials are adequate or if the time to begin production is limited (Taking just a few hours or days assuming the model is ready).

Accessibility

3D printing can be used to create tactile versions of visual media like artwork or maps for the blind.

Logistic stopgap

3D printed face shield parts made during the COVID-19 pandemic.

When supply chains are disrupted in an emergency, local 3D printer owners are able to produce low quantities of vital materials and parts, ensuring a constant, if very small stream of new supplies, while logistical challenges are fixed. This very scenario was seen in the early days of the COVID-19 pandemic, when 3D printer operators made PPE and ventilator parts for hospital staff. It is also a strategy employed by some disaster preparedness strategies.

Development

Progress

• Minimum Viable Product achieved on November 29th, 2020.
• Print formatting finished on March 20th, 2021.

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