The relations between the roots and the coefficients of a polynomial equation; the occurrence of the non-real roots in conjugate pairs when the coefficients of the polynomials are real.
where and are real numbers
The argument of is the angle between the positive x-axis and a line drawn between the origin and the point in the complex plane (see [1])
In general, if and ,
If and then , with the proviso that may have to be added to, or subtracted from, if is outside the permitted range for .
If and then , with the same proviso regarding the size of the angle .
If the complex number is represented by the point , and the complex number is represented by the point in an Argand diagram, then , and is the angle between and the positive direction of the x-axis.
represents a circle with centre and radius
represents a circle with centre and radius
represents a straight line — the perpendicular bisector of the line joining the points and
represents the half line through inclined at an angle to the positive direction of
represents the half line through the point inclined at an angle to the positive direction of
The cube roots of unity are , and , where
and the non-real roots are
The equation has roots
The equation , where , has roots
Osborne's rule states that:
- to change a trigonometric function into its corresponding hyperbolic function, where a product of two sines appears, change the sign of the corresponding hyperbolic form
Note that Osborne's rule is an aide mémoire, not a proof.
Integrals which integrate to inverse hyperbolic functions
[edit | edit source]
Calculation of the arc length of a curve and the area of a surface using Cartesian or parametric coordinates
[edit | edit source]
The AQA's free textbook [2]