American Revolution/Brandywine and Germantown
Introduction
[edit | edit source]The Battles of Brandywine and Germantown were part of the Philadelphia Campaign of the American Revolution (1775-1783).
The Battle of the Brandywine was fought on September 11, 1777, at Chad’s Ford, Pennsylvania. The Battle of Germantown was fought on October 4, 1777, near Philadelphia. The American Continental Army was led by General George Washington. The British forces were led by General William Howe. Although the Americans lost both battles to the British, they remained in good spirits. Their bravery and determination impressed the leaders of France. The American spirit of independence led to an alliance with France in February 1778. This alliance helped the Americans ultimately win the Revolutionary War against the British.
New Jersey
General George Washington was Commander-in-Chief of the American Continental Army. He crossed the Delaware River on Christmas night, 1776. His aim was to make a surprise attack on the British camp at Trenton, New Jersey. He was successful. The victory gave the Americans a huge confidence boost. Both armies were now in New Jersey. General Washington wanted to know what the British were planning to do next. Would they go north to New York, or try to capture the American capital of Philadelphia?
Maryland
A group of 265 British naval vessels (flotilla) were preparing to sail. It was the largest fleet of warships ever assembled in America. The ships would travel south from Sandy Hook, New Jersey, down the Atlantic Coast. They would go around the tip of the peninsula and sail north up the Chesapeake Bay. On August 27, 1777, they would land at the Head of the Elk River in Elkton, Maryland. The troops would leave the ship (disembark) then cross Delaware on their way to capture Philadelphia.
Going up the Delaware River would have been faster, but it was blocked. The Americans had placed spike-covered barricades (chevaux-de-frise) at the bottom of the river. Any enemy ships trying to sail the Delaware would be destroyed.
The British flotilla took six weeks to complete the trip to the Head of the Elk River in Maryland. The ships had brought 17,000 soldiers, many weapons, supplies, and animals. There were 500 head of cattle, 1000 sheep, and 100 horses. The voyage had been very stressful. Many soldiers were seasick. Many horses had died along the way. The loss of horses would affect the British in the field. Much time had been lost sailing the longer route.
The ships were unloaded and the British prepared to move north. Their goal would be to capture the American capital of Philadelphia. They wanted to move out right away and travel light, so they did not make a permanent camp in Elkton.
Prelude to Brandywine – End of August
[edit | edit source]Red Clay Creek
The Americans also traveled light. They made camp about ten miles north of Elkton. Washington was worried about their position and ordered his troops to fall back toward Red Clay Creek.
The troops prepared for battle. Delaware militiamen were sent out to harass Howe’s troops. Redoubts (fortifications) were built. Entrenchments (ditches) were dug. Cannons were placed on high ground. Brigadier General Sullivan and Major General Greene were on the northern flank (side). General Alexander (Lord Sterling), Major General Stephen, and Major General Wayne were on the southern side, closest to the enemy. The placement of these divisions gave Washington flexibility. Troops could easily be moved as needed.
There was disagreement about the best place for the defensive line. Greene believed nearby Christiana Creek would be best. There were roads, open country, and woods for camouflage. Washington thought Red Clay Creek would be best. To compromise, Washington sent Maxwell’s unit with militiamen to Cooch's Bridge at Christiana Creek. Maxwell made his headquarters at the Cooch home. The skirmish took place on September 3, 1777. It was called the Battle of Cooch’s Bridge. Also, known as the Battle of Iron Hill, it was the only Revolutionary War battle to take place in Delaware.
There were 800 American light infantry and militia under Maxwell. There were 1700 British and Hessian soldiers under Howe, Cornwallis, and von Wurmb. The British had artillery; the Americans had only rifles. The fighting began when the Americans ambushed the British about 2 miles south of Cooch’s Bridge. The Americans had made a series of small camps in the marshes, creek beds, and small ravines on either side of the road. They hid in the thick woods on either side of the road. Ambushing the enemy from behind trees and rocks was a tactic learned from Native Americans. The plan was to shoot and retreat until ordered to make a stand. After firing, the Americans would fall back, reload, and fire again.
Unfortunately, the Americans eventually ran out of ammunition. The British continued the battle with swords and bayonets. They were well trained with such weapons, so they had the advantage. The American soldiers were not trained in bayonet fighting. Their rifles did not usually have bayonets. They were outnumbered by the British. After 7 hours of fighting, Maxwell’s men retreated. The British army was victorious. Cornwallis took the Cooch house as his headquarters. American casualties were 30 killed or wounded, 140 missing or captured. British casualties were 30 killed or wounded and 35 captured. The engagement at Cooch’s Bridge was not a major battle. It had no effect on the outcome of the Philadelphia Campaign or the Revolutionary War. It did, however, raise Washington’s confidence in the ability of his men’s ability to perform in battle.
Washington gains valuable time
The next day, the British fleet left the Head of the Elk to sail back down Chesapeake Bay. The ships carried sick and wounded soldiers, tents, and unneeded baggage. On September 8th, British land-troops moved north, out of Delaware into Pennsylvania. Some ships remained.
The British advanced slowly toward the Brandywine. The delay allowed Washington to move his troops out of harm’s way. On the morning of September 9, they moved on to Chad’s Ford, on Brandywine Creek about 20 miles away. Chad’s Ford was the last natural defense before Philadelphia.
Washington set up headquarters at a Quaker farm and mill owned by Benjamin Ring. The Americans camped about a half mile from Chad’s Ford. Washington held a council-of-war with his generals to plan his strategy.
The British army would need to cross the Brandywine to get to Philadelphia. Washington began building defenses at shallow places (fords) along the river. Some fords would remain unprotected due to manpower shortages. Others were deep and impassable, so did not need additional protection. By the night of September 10, American troops were extended along a six-mile line covering the east side of the Brandywine Creek.
Congress sent deputies to inspect Washington’s placement of troops. They approved. The Americans seemed well-positioned and well-prepared to meet the British. Washington did not believe Howe would use a flanking (side) attack. He thought Howe would make a direct attack, relying on his greater number of troops and superior artillery. The Americans spent an anxious night about their campfires. It is said that Reverend Joab Trout gathered the troops together and prayed for a good outcome for the Americans and a future peaceful land.
British at Kennett Square
British General Knyphausen arrived at Kennett Square, Pennsylvania. He made camp east of town. General Cornwallis was delayed due to a late start and being unfamiliar with the area. Heavy artillery had to be hauled over muddy roads by horses weakened by the long sea journey. General James Grant camped at Hockessin Meeting a few miles from Kennett Square.
Fifteen-thousand British troops spent the night in Kennett Square. This was their first major stop since landing at the Head of the Elk at the end of August. Knyphausen would attack the Americans at Chad’s Ford. Cornwallis would move north, cross the Brandywine, and flank Washington's right. After an uneventful spring, several weeks at sea, and 16 days of marching, the Battle of the Brandywine was at hand. It would be the first major battle of the Philadelphia Campaign of 1777.
Battle of the Brandywine September 11, 1777
[edit | edit source]Before dawn, the British troops moved out from Kennett Square toward Chad’s Ford. At the front were "pioneers” clearing the road of obstructions. The army was headed to Jeffries’ Ford six miles away. Once across the river, they would flank and trap Washington’s army.
The British vanguard (front troops) consisted of 496 men: the Queen's Rangers, Ferguson's riflemen, and a squad from the 16th Light Dragoons. Behind them were the 1st and 2nd British Brigades. The artillery, supply wagons, and livestock stolen from surrounding farms followed the troops. The formidable 71st regiment served as the rear guard.
People say a chance meeting started the Battle of the Brandywine. A mounted party of scouts had stopped at Welch’s Tavern in Kennett Square. They were surprised by the arrival of some British soldiers. The Americans fired at them from the tavern, and ran out the back door, leaving their horses behind.
Conflicting Reports
Washington believed the entire British force would attack at Chad’s Ford. Then he received a report that Howe had split his army, moving some toward Reading depot and some toward Chad’s Ford.
Washington responded by sending some of his troops farther north. Then he received a message saying there was no British troop movement to the north. He did not believe this message. He mistakenly thought it was a trick. He removed his defense against a flanking movement. Howe now had extra time to march south and flank the Americans.
Howe Crosses the Brandywine
Eight-thousand British troops crossed the Brandywine about eight miles north of the Americans. A local man named Squire Cheyney discovered the British nearby. He rode seven miles to the Ring House to warn Washington. Cheyney's message along with several others convinced Washington that Howe had maneuvered around him.
Americans Stirling, Stephen, and Sullivan moved north. Wayne and Maxwell stayed to fight Knyphausen. They would be supported by Proctor's artillery. Greene's troops remained in reserve. They were in position to fight either Knyphausen or Cornwallis.
Tea Time for Howe
The British made slow progress. Heavy artillery had to be pulled over rough terrain. Artillery had to be placed on a hilltop to be effective. Once everything was in place, they took a half-hour break for lunch and tea. They had marched for 11 hours and felt safe for the moment. This break was a missed opportunity for Howe to rout the Americans. Instead, he gave them time to form defensive lines a mile to the south.
After resting, the British organized an attack. They would either outflank or overrun the American line. The Americans failed to form a solid defensive line. Sullivan’s troops had moved too far away, leaving an opening. The British launched a fierce attack. Parts of the American defensive line broke down. The Americans fought valiantly but were overwhelmed. They fell back, losing several artillery pieces to the British.
Sullivan sent frantic messages to Washington about the events to the north. They went unheeded. Washington still believed only a few British troops were there. Then, he heard the sounds of cannon fire from the north. The quiet on the west side of the creek finally convinced him Sullivan’s reports were true: the main British force was indeed to the north.
British
To clear a path for the British, Knyphausen launched a frontal attack. He bombarded the Americans with heavy artillery. He had crossed the Brandywine at several places. His main column fought through the American resistance at Chad’s Ford. A smaller British force crossed at Gibson's Ford to the south. They threatened the American militia posted at Pyle's Ford. The Americans fought hard despite being outnumbered. They seemed to be holding their ground, but soon British reinforcements arrived. The Americans were defeated.
The American defeat at Brandywine was due to many factors. Washington had no sound information about the fords. Poor scouting left the Americans unaware of Howe’s column. Too late, American troops were sent to block Howe’s flanking force. Washington had let Howe flank his army and drive them from the field.
American Retreat
Lafayette tried to stop the American retreat. In the melee, he was wounded in the leg. Despite this, he was able to organize an orderly retreat. Green’s division held off Howe’s column long enough for the Americans to escape. He opened his lines to let the retreating men pass and re-formed the lines after them. Polish Brigadier General Pulaski’s men defended the rear.
The Americans retreated toward Chester, abandoning guns and artillery. Edward Hector, a black soldier, valiantly saved a few wagonloads of ammunition and arms, but most of the equipment was left behind. The baggage had been removed to Chester the day before, so it was safe. A small brigade armed with four cannon was posted at Painter's Crossroads to cover the retreating troops.
The Battle of the Brandywine was the largest single-day battle of the American Revolution. There were 15,000 Americans and 16,000 British altogether. The battle lasted for 11 hours. It covered 10 square miles. An estimated 1100 American troops and 600 British troops were killed, wounded, or captured.
After the Battle
After his decisive victory, General Howe kept his army on or near the battlefield to rest. The dead were buried, and the wounded were tended to. Wounded men were sent to Dilworth Hospital and Wilmington Hospital. There were not enough wagons or healthy horses to do this all at once. It took 5 days to complete the task.
Wilmington was the base of operations for the Royal Navy. Several British ships would be available to receive the wounded. Howe created a protected area (bridgehead) so troops and wagons could safely cross the river to reach the ships.
Instead of pursuing Washington, Howe allowed him to withdraw and reorganize. The Americans counted their dead, wounded, and missing. Wounded were sent to various places including Philadelphia, Trenton, and Reading. General Lafayette was taken by barge from Chester to Philadelphia. There he rested at the Indian Queen Tavern before being taken to Bethlehem, Pennsylvania to recover.
Washington assembled his troops and ordered them to get ready to march. Ammunition and necessities were given out. The American army went back on the road. They needed to find new defensive ground to meet Howe’s army and save Philadelphia.
Some believe Howe’s army may have been more badly damaged than was known at the time.
This may be the reason he stayed so long after the battle ended. However, he had a record of not following through after successful battles. Some historians point out that Howe could have easily pursued Washington’s beaten army. He could have forced more fighting or further scattered the Americans. Lastly, he could have cut off Washington’s troops from the Reading depot so they could not get supplies and ammunition.
To Philadelphia
By midday on September 12th, the Americans reached the Schuylkill River. Then, a few miles from Philadelphia, they turned and marched to the Falls of the Schuylkill near Germantown. They had marched 17 hours after fighting the Battle of the Brandywine. According to an American officer’s diary entry, the army was in good spirits despite their tiredness.
To save Philadelphia from the British, all of the fords along the Schuylkill River would have to be defended. Militia men constructed temporary fortifications (redoubts) above the fords. The soldiers reorganized their ranks and practiced drills to get ready for battle.
Once it became clear that Philadelphia might fall to the British, panic gripped the city. Rumors were rampant. American patriots moved out; businesses closed down. The British were taking bells from churches and buildings to melt down and make bullets. The patriots smuggled the Liberty Bell out of the city, hidden in a cart of straw. It was taken to Allentown where it stayed until June, 1778, when it returned to Philadelphia.
The British could cross the Schuylkill at Fatlands Ford to go to Philadelphia. Or, they could cross at Gordon's Ford and go to Reading. He built a bridge at Gordon's Ford to convince Washington that the British were going to Reading. The trick worked and Washington moved west to defend the supply depots at Reading. This left Howe a clear path into Philadelphia. At midnight, all the British troops crossed at Fatlands Ford and headed to Philadelphia.
Battle of Germantown, October 4, 1777
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Howe captured Philadelphia on September 26. 1777. He posted 9000 troops at Germantown, a village 5 miles north of Philadelphia. He thought Germantown was a safe place to monitor Washington’s movements. He sent 3000 troops to occupy Philadelphia. He kept 6000 near Germantown.
When Washington learned Howe had split his army, he prepared a surprise attack. If the Americans could capture Germantown, they could retake Philadelphia. Eleven-thousand American troops would advance under cover of night. They would attack from multiple directions at dawn.
Unfortunately, they lost the element of surprise because darkness and dense fog delayed their advance. The heavy morning fog caused confusion. Sullivan’s right-center column was able to drive off the British light infantry. However, 120 British soldiers took refuge in a nearby house. Washington ordered his men to take the house. They tried several times, but of their attacks failed. A short distance away, Sullivan’s men ran low on ammunition. They pulled back when they heard cannon fire. Greene’s wing was just arriving. They ran into Wayne’s division. Both were confused by the fog and accidentally fired on each other.
Meanwhile, Greene’s left-center column pushed back the British right flank. Sullivan’s column was out of the fight. The British left wing joined the fight against Greene and defeated him. The Americans withdrew under cover of darkness. The British had won the Battle of the Brandywine.
American casualties were 152 killed, 521 wounded, and 438 captured. British casualties were 71 killed, 448 wounded, and none captured.
After the Battle, there was disappointment on both sides. Howe had let the Americans escape to fight another day. He had been unable to gain support from the civilian population. Washington had received unreliable information about the fords. He had let Howe flank his army and drive them from the field.
Results
Despite the British victory, many Europeans, especially the French, were impressed by the unflagging determination of the Americans. In the final months of 1777, both armies went into winter quarters. The Americans went to Valley Forge in Pennsylvania. The young Continental Army would mature that winter under the direction of General Friedrich von Steuben. They would be trained to use bayonets in battle. Von Steuben would turn them into a disciplined, professional fighting force.
The Battle of the Brandywine was crucial to American freedom because it gave Washington’s army confidence in battle. They had stood up to the British army—one of the most professional in the world. The Americans would ultimately go on to win the Revolutionary War. The American Revolution officially ended on September 3, 1783, with the signing of the Treaty of Paris.
References
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Battle of Cooch’s Bridge. https://www.revolutionarywar.us
Burdick, K. (Dec 14, 2021). Cooch’s Bridge, Delaware’s only Revolutionary War battle. Journal of the American Revolution. http://allthingsliberty.com
Harris, M. C. (2014). Brandywine: A military history of the battle that lost Philadelphia but saved America, September 11, 1777. Savas Beatie.
Hoffecker, C. (1974). Brandywine Village, the story of a milling community. Old Brandywine Village, Inc.
Iron making. https://www.nps.gov/hofu/learn/historyculture/iron-making.htm
Kent, D. (1994). Delaware. Childrens press.
Miller, N. (1965). The story of the Liberty Bell. Childrens Press.
Philadelphia Campaign: 1777. Independence Hall Association. https://www.ushistory.org
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Soodalter, R. (Feb 6, 2017). Military History Quarterly. Arming the Revolution: Where did the Continental Army get its cannons? https://www.historynet.com/arming-revolution-continental-army-get-cannons/
Virtual marching tour of the American Revolutionary War, the Philadelphia Campaign: 1777. The Philadelphia Campaign of 1777: Background (ushistory.org)
American Revolution 10/04/1777 - Battles - Battle of Germantown in Pennsylvania (Philadelphia Campaign) - RevWarTalk