Beginners Guide to Ladino/Printable version

Beginners Guide to Ladino

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Guide to Reading and Writing Ladino

Guide to Reading and Writing Ladino

Like any language, Ladino has its own particularities in how it is written. Ladino is a bit unique in this regard, however, because it uses at least three writing systems:

• Hebrew block letters (most often in the Rashi script)
• Hebrew cursive letters called Solitreo
• Latin letters.

Because Wikibooks does not (yet!) support the Rashi or Solitreo scripts, this book uses the more widely available Ktav Ashuri block script common to Modern Israeli Hebrew. In some cases, images using Rashi or Solitreo are provided.

Note. When it is written in Hebrew letters, Ladino is written and read right-to-left. When it is written in Latin letters, Ladino is written and read left-to right.

Goals of this chapter

This chapter will explain how Ladino's writing system works. By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

• Name the three main writing systems used in Ladino
• Explain the difference between an alphabet and an abjad
• Use rafe to correctly differentiate letters
• Identify which Hebraic letters have word-final (sofit) forms
• Employ optional spelling conventions in a consistent way
• Understand that:
  • some Hebraic letters have one-to-many correspondence with Latinate letters
  • some Latinate letters have one-to-many correspondence with Hebraic letters
  • some letters in both Hebraic and Latinate writing have one-to-many correspondence with different sounds
• Use Ladino's system of writing 'rules' to deal with complex Hebraic spellings, such as:
  • positional alefs for word-initial vowels (excluding /a/), hiatuses, and /w/ glides
  • sequences of <י> and <יי>

The Hebrew Alphabet • איל אלפ׳אביטו איבריאו

For the purposes of this book, there are 36 letters in Ladino's Hebrew alphabet. This table shows each of these letters, written in Rashi script, the Solitreo cursive, and Ktav Ashuri. The name of the letter is provided, along with the equivalent(s) for each letter in the Latin alphabet, the sound of the letter in the International Phonetic Alphabet, and a comparable sound in English.

Take note that one Hebrew letter might represent multiple sounds, and that one sound might be represented by multiple Hebrew letters.

Rashi	Solitreo	Ktav Ashuri	Name	Latin Equivalent	IPA	Sounds like
		א	alef	a	/a/	father
		ב	bet	b	/b/	beat
		ב׳	vet	v	/v/	verb
		ג	gimel	g	/g/	gas
		ג׳	gimel	dj, ch	/ʤ/ /ʧ/	jump, chin
		ג׳׳	gimel	ch	/ʧ/	chin
		ד	dalet	d	/d/	ditch
		ד׳	dalet	d	/ð/	the
		ה	he	a	/a/	father
		ו	vav	o, u	/o/ /u/	open, moon
		ז	zayin	z	/z/	zoo
		ז׳	zayin	j	/ʒ/	vision
		ח	het	h	/x/	chutzpah
		ט	tet	t	/t/	time
		י	yod	e, i	/e/ /i/	may, me
		יי	yod	y	/j/	yes
		כ	kaf	h, k	/x/ /k/	chutzpah, camp
		ך	kaf sofit	h, k	/x/ /k/	chutzpah, camp
		ל	lamed	l	/l/	life
		מ	mem	m	/m/	melon
		ם	mem sofit	m	/m/	melon
		נ	nun	n	/n/	none
		ן	nun sofit	n	/n/	none
		ס	sameh	s	/s/	some
		ע	ayin	a	/a/	father
		פ	pe	p	/p/	put
		ף	pe sofit	p	/p/	put
		פ׳	fe	f	/f/	fade
		ף׳	fe sofit	f	/f/	fade
		צ	sadik	s	/s/	some
		ץ	sadik sofit	s	/s/	some
		ק	kof	k	/k/	camp
		ר	resh	r	/ɾ/	butter
		ש	shin	s, sh	/s/ /ʃ/	some, shirt
		ש׳	shin	sh	/ʃ/	shirt
		ת	tav	t	/t/	time

The Latin Alphabet

Vowels (<a e i o u> for /a e i o u/) are exactly the same as in Spanish.

<k> is used for all /k/ sounds– there is no <q> or <c> for /k/

• cuando, kuando
• que, ke

<s> is used for all /s/ sounds– there is no <c> for /s/

• cielo, syelo

<y> is only for /j/

• <y> cannot be /i/, <i> is used for and

<j> is used for the j in jour (French)

<dj> replaces the english <j> sound (like in jump)

<b v s z> sound as they do in English

<x> can only be used for the /gz/ and /ks/ sounds. <gz> can be used for /gz/

Diphthongs with <i> can be written as with either i or y:

• bien - byen
• preparasion - preparasyon
• komio - komyo

Alphabets and abjads

In an alphabet system, both vowels and consonants are written out. English and Castilian (Spanish) are two examples of languages that use alphabets.

Other languages might use a system called an abjad. In abjad systems, vowels may be omitted. Take, for example, the following words:

Word (Ladino - Hebrew)	Word (Ladino - Latin)	Word (English)
חכם	haham	smart, wise; Sephardic rabbi
קוזה	koza	thing

חכם is a word of Hebrew origin. If we are writing Ladino in the Hebrew script, we always write words of Hebrew or Aramaic origin exactly as they are written in Hebrew or Aramaic; חכם is the correct spelling in both Hebrew and Ladino. But if we write חכם in the Latin script, we gain two more letters that aren't there in the Hebrew! The Latin script version represents explicitly all the sounds that appear in the word, but the Hebraic letters only represent the consonants: ח, which makes a guttural h sound (/x/), כ, which makes a similar sound to ח in this context, and ם, which makes an /m/ sound. This means that sometimes, Ladino behaves like an abjad when we write in the Hebrew script and borrow words from Hebrew or Aramaic.

On the other hand, קוזה is a word of Romance origin, and Romance languages use true alphabets, so every sound is represented explicitly in both the Hebrew and Latin versions of the word: ק - /k/, ו - /o/, ז - /z/, and ה - /a/.

Diacritics

Ladino written in the Hebraic scripts uses only one diacritic, called a rafe. The rafe is used to denote variations in pronunciation of a letter.

Some pronunciation distinctions within letters must use rafe:

No rafe				With rafe
Hebraic letter	Latinate Letter	IPA	Example	Hebraic Letter	Latinate Letter	IPA	Example
ב	b	/b/	באיילאר	ב׳	v	/v/	ב׳וזוטראס
			baylar				vozotras
			to dance				you (f.pl)
ג	g	/g/	ייגה	ג׳	dj	/ʤ/	ג׳ודיו
							djudio
			yega				Jewish
					ch	/t͡ʃ/	ג׳אפיו
			arrive (3.sg)				chapeo
							hat
ז	z	/z/	קאזה	ז׳	j	/ʒ/	אוז׳וס
			kaza				ojos
			house				eyes
פ	p	/p/	פור	פ׳	f	/f/	פ׳אזיר
			por				fazer
			for				to do

Other pronunciation distinctions are optional to depict with rafe:

No rafe				With rafe				Explanation
Hebraic letter	Latinate Letter	IPA	Example	Hebraic Letter	Latinate Letter	IPA	Example
ג	g	/g/	ייגה	ג׳	dj	/ʤ/	ג׳ודיו	The <ג> vs. <ג׳> contrast is obligatory, but Ladino users have a choice of whether <ג׳> represents both /ʤ/ and /t͡ʃ/, or to add <ג׳׳> so that <ג׳> is for /ʤ/ and <ג׳׳> is for /t͡ʃ/. <ג׳׳> is a relatively recent (ca. 2021) initiative by the Akademia Nasionala del Ladino to assist learning.
							djudio
			yega				Jewish
				ג׳׳	ch	/t͡ʃ/	ג׳׳אפיו
			arrive (3.sg)				chapeo
							hat
ד	d	/d/	דוראר	ד׳	d	/ð/	נאד׳ה	Some dialects merge /d/ and /ð/ to /d/. Note that the Latinate letters do not change; this distinction only applies in the Hebraic scripts.
			durar				nada
			to last				nothing
ש	s	/s/	מעשה	ש׳	sh	/ʃ/	ש׳אב׳ון	Some Ladino users will make this distinction for greater clarity.
			maase				shavon
			story				to do

While there is only one diacritic, how it is actually written can vary:

Geresh	Rafe	Varrika

This book uses the geresh ׳ to depict the rafe due to its ease of use. Note that rafe is both the name for the diacritic overall and for one of the ways that the diacritic can be written. The geresh should also not be confused with an apostrophe '.

In the Latin writing systems, acute accents (e.g., <é>) to denote stress (as in Spanish) are optional in Ladino, but they are only used when the word goes against normal stress patterns for Ladino words:

• word ends in a vowel (/a e i o u/) or any of: /n s ʃ/
  • paroxytone: the stress is on the penultimate (second-to-last) syllable
• word ends in any other consonant
  • oxytone: the stress is on the last syllable

For example, the word מעשה (maase) has its stress on the last syllable. However, it ends with a vowel, so it "should" be paroxytone and have its stress on the second to last– we have a conflict. We always go with what the word actually sounds like, not what the general patterns are, to determine if we can place an accent. So, we know we can place an accent (because this word goes against the general patterns) and we know that accent would go on the last syllable: maasé.

There is no hard rule to know where the stress goes, you must be able to hear the word and identify where the stress is or already know where the stress goes.

Final (sofit) letters

Six Hebraic letters in Ladino have an obligatory alternative form for when they appear in word-final (sofit) position. Their pronunciation does not change when used as sofit.

Non-sofit				Sofit
Letter	Example (Ladino - Hebraic)	Example (Ladino - Latinized)	Example (English)	Letter	Example (Ladino - Hebraic)	Example (Ladino - Latinized)	Example (English)
כ	ברכה	beraha	blessing	ך	ברוך	baruh	blessed be
מ	מונג׳׳ו	muncho	many	ם	חכם	haham	smart; wise; Sephardic rabbi
נ	נוג׳׳י	noche	night	ן	איסטאן	estan	they (3.pl) are
פ	פאראס	paras	money	ף	מונאסיף	munasip	appropriate
פ׳	פ׳אזיר	fazer	to do	ף׳	קייף׳	kief	pleasure
צ	צדקה	sedaka	almsgiving	ץ	איריץ	Eres	Eretz (Land), as in Eretz Yisrael (Land of Israel)

Positional alefs

There are certain cases in Hebrew-written Ladino that require what is called a 'positional alef'. This is an alef which has no sound, but it indicates that one of three things is happening:

1. The word starts with a vowel other than /a/
2. The word has a 'hiatus'
3. The word has a /w/ glide other than the /wa/ glide

Words written in Latinized Ladino do not have positional alefs.

Words starting with a vowel other than /a/

This is the most straightforward use of positional alefs. If a word begins with a vowel other than /a/, then a positional alef comes at the start of the word:

• elefante (elephant) – איליפ'אנטי
• ijo (son) – איז'ו
• ovra (work) – אוב'רה
• umano (human) – אומאנו

<y> is never a vowel in Ladino:

• yerva (grass) – יירב'ה

Words with haituses

A word has a hiatus if there are two adjacent (touching) vowels, but they belong to two different syllables. If you don't know how many syllables there are in a word, there's a few tricks!

• Clap along to the word (clap a-long to the word; hi-a-tus; ad-ja-cent; La-di-no; dju-de-o-es-pan-yol)
• With your mouth closed, place your hand under your chin. Say the words out loud and count how many times your jaw pushes your hand down as you say the word.

Here's some examples in Ladino, with the words syllabified (divisions marked by -) but the positional alefs removed underneath each example:

• anchua (anchovy) – אנג׳׳ואה
  • an-chu-a – אנ–ג׳׳ו–ה
• kaos (chaos) – קאאוס
  • ka-os — קא–וס
• pais (country) – פאאיס
  • pa-is — פא–יס
• tio (uncle) — טיאו
  • ti-o — טי–ו
• kaer (to fall) – קאאיר
  • ka-er — קא–יר
• leon (lion) – ליאון
  • le-on — לי–ון

Words with /w/ glides (other than /wa/)

On the other hand from hiatuses, two adjacent vowels can also belong to the same syllable, in which case they form a 'diphthong'. If the diphthong starts with <u> and makes a /w/ sound, it is said to form a '/w/-glide'. Here are those sounds; listen to how there's a /w/ sound:

• <ua> – kuando (when)
  • קואנדו
• <ue> – kuerno (horn)
  • קוא׳רנו
• <ui> – fui (I was)
  • פ׳ואי
• <uo> – ambiguo (ambiguous)
  • אמביגואו

Note that kuando does not have a positional alef. <ua> glides never use a positional alef.

Examples

• <ai> – אאי
  • aí – אאי
• <au> or <ao> – אאו
  • baúl (trunk) – באאול
• <ay> – איי
  • chay (tea) – ג׳׳איי
• <ea> – יא
  • meatad (half) – מיאטאד׳
• <ee> or <ei> – יאי
  • kreer (to think) – קריאיר
• <eo> or <io> – יאו
  • frio (cold) – פ׳ריאו
• <ia> – יא
  • giador (guide) – גיאדור
• <oa> or <ua> – וא
  • loar (to praise) – לואר
• <oi> – ואי
  • mois – מואיס

Yod

A single yod represents <i> /i/ and <e> /e/.

Double yod can represent <y> /j/, but it can also represent two single yods (<ei>, <ie>), or combinations of single yod with double yod, as there cannot be a triple yod: <ey>, <ye>, <iy>, <yi>.

Examples

Single yod:

• meter (to put) – מיטיר
• bivir (to live) – ביב׳יר

Double yod:

• ayde (come on) – איידי
• Two single yods:
  • peinar (to comb) – פיינאר
  • biervo (word) – ביירב׳ו
• Single yod with double yod:
  • eyos (they.3.sg) – אייוס
  • yega (arrives.3.sg) – ייגה
  • maraviyas (great!) – מאראב׳ייאס
  • buyir (to boil) – בואייר

Complete Table of Letters

Hebraic Letter						Letter Name	Latinate Letter	IPA	Sounds like (English)	Example (Ladino - Hebraic)	Example (Ladino - Latinized)	Example (English)	Explanation
Ktav Ashuri	Rashi	Solitreo	Final (sofit) letter
			Ktav Ashuri	Rashi	Solitreo
א						alef	a	/a/	father	אב׳לאר	avlar	to speak
								/Ø/		אונו	uno	one	Words that start with /e i o u/ have a silent positional alef at the beginning
										ריאיר	reir	laugh	Words that have a hiatus (two consecutive vowels that belong to different syllables) have a silent, intervocalic (in-between those two vowels) positional alef
										בואינו	bueno	good	Words that have /w/ glides (except /wa/ glides) have an intervocalic positional alef
ב						bet	b	/b/	beat	בואינו	bueno	good	Ladino distinguishes /b/ and /v/ much more strongly than Castilian.
ב׳						vet	v	/v/	verb	ב׳ינו	vino	wine
ג						gimel	g	/g/	gas	אגואה	agua	water
ג׳							dj	/ʤ/	jump	ג׳ודיו	djudio	Jewish
ג׳׳							ch	/t͡ʃ/	chin	ג׳׳אפיאו	chapeo	hat	Some users of Ladino will use ג׳ for this sound. The Akademia Nasionala del Ladino en Israel began promoting the use of this letter for orthographic clarity in 2021. Sometimes written as <ç> in Latinate script.
ד						dalet	d	/d/	ditch	דיזיר	dizir	to say
ד׳							d	/ð/	the	פאד׳רי	padre	father	This distinction is optional.
ה						he		Ø		הלכה	alaha	Halakha
							a	/a/	father	קוזה	koza	thing	Words that don't come from Hebrew or Aramaic with word-final /a/ use ה.
										מערה	meara	cavern	Words with Hebrew or Aramaic origin that have word-final /a/ realized as ה in their original language preserve that ה in Ladino.
ו						vav	o	/o/	open	ב׳ואינו	bueno	good
							u	/u/	moon	מונג׳׳ו	muncho	much
							v	/v/	verb	מצוה	misva	mitzvah (Jewish religious law)	Words with Hebrew or Aramaic origin that realize /v/ realized as ו in their original language preserve that ו in Ladino.
ז						zayin	z	/z/	zoo	קאזה	kaza	house	This sound is never /θ/ like in Peninsular Castilian.
ז׳							j	/ʒ/	vision	איז׳ו	ijo	son	This sound is never /x/ like in Castilian.
ח						het	h	/x/	chutzpah	אחארבאר	aharvar	to hit; to beat	Used for words of Hebrew or Aramaic origin which use ח.
										אליחאנדרו	Alejandro	Alejandro	Used to transcribe /x/ sounds.
ט						tet	t	/t/	time	טופאר	topar	find
י						yod	e	/e/	may	מיטיר	meter	put
							i	/i/	me	ביב׳יר	bivir	live
יי							y	/j/	yes	איידי	ayde	come on
							ei	/ei/	day	פיינאר	peinar	to comb	There cannot be a triple yod in Ladino. Some Ladino users will use <ליי> for what would be <ll> in Castilian.
							ie	/je/	yes	ביירב׳ו	biervo	word
							ey	/ei/	able	אייוס	eyos	they (m.pl)
							ye	/je/	sierra	ייגה	yega	arrives (3.sg)
							iy	/ij/	idea	מאראב׳ייאס	maraviyas!	great!
							yi	/ji/	Yiddish	בואייר	buyir	to boil
כ			ך			kaf	k	/k/	camp	כבוד	kavod	respect	Only used for words of Hebrew or Aramaic origin which use כ.
						haf	h	/x/	Loch Ness	חכם	haham	smart; wise; Sephardic rabbi
ל						lamed	l	/l/	life	נאטוראל	natural	natural
מ			ם			mem	m	/m/	melon	מאדרי	madre	mother
נ			ן			nun	n	/n/	none	נאדאר	nadar	to swim
ס						sameh	s	/s/	some	סוב׳רי	sovre	about
ע						ayin	a	/a/	father	עמידה	amida	Amidah (Jewish prayer)	Only used for words of Hebrew or Aramaic origin which use ע.
פ			ף			pe	p	/p/	put	פיזגאדו	pezgado	fish
פ׳			ף׳			fe	f	/f/	fade	סופ׳ריר	sufrir	suffer
צ			ץ			sadik	s	/s/	boots	ארץ ישראל	Eres Israel	Eretz Yisrael (the Land of Israel)	Only used for words of Hebrew or Aramaic origin which use צ.
ק						kof	k	/k/	comb	קי	ke	that
ר						resh	r	/ɾ/	butter	ריגלה	regla	rule
							rr	/r/	no English equivalent; trilled r	פירו	perro	dog	ר is never doubled.
ש						shin	s	/s/	suit	מעשה	maase	story
ש׳							sh	/ʃ/	shirt	ד׳ש׳אר	deshar	to leave	This distinction is optional. Sometimes written in Latinate script as <x>.
ת						tav	t	/t/	tooth	מצוות	misvot	mitzvot (Jewish religious laws)	Only used for words of Hebrew or Aramaic origin which use ת.

Notes

2. There are is no (א) at the end of ladino words. The (א) at the end of a word will be replaced by a (ה) at the end of a word

3. In certain countries the digraph (ליי) which represents a "double L" will be used to pronounced y; although not all dialects have this "double L" it is used almost universally in every dialect to spell Eya, Eyas, and Eyos.

Ladino Grammar

Ladino Grammar

Ladino grammar functions very similarly to Spanish, although according to many linguists their grammar is actually closer to Galician and Portuguese rather than Spanish.

Here are the Pronouns in Ladino and English, we will start with: I/me, you, he, they (masculine), you guys (masculine), we (masculine)

English	Ladino
I	Yo (ייו)
You (singular)	Tu (טו)
He	El (איל)
She	Ella (אילייה)
They (masculine)	Ellos (ֵאילייוס)
They (feminine)	Ellas (ֵאילייאס)
We (masculine)	Mozotros (מוזוטרוס)
We (feminine)	Mozotras (מוזוטראס)
You (plural masculine)	Vozotros (בֿוזוטרוס)
You (plural feminine)	Vozotras (בֿוזוטראס)

Note:

[1] The "double L" <ll> is pronounced as a <y>. As mentioned in the Guide to Reading and Writing Ladino. The double "ll" is written as <ליי> with the <ל> being silent. The "double L" is only used in certain dialects but all dialects use it to spell ellos, ellas, and ella.

[2] For the plural pronouns (mozotros, vozotros, and ellos) the masculine form is used to show a group of not just men but also both men and women in one group while the feminine form is only used for a group of only females.

Verbs in Ladino

Present

	-ar verbs (avlar)	-er verbs (komer)	-ir verbs (bivir)
yo	-o (avlo)	-o (komo) (bivo)
tu	-as (avlas)	-es (komes) (bives)
el eya	-a (avla)	-e (kome) (bive)
mozotros	-amos (avlamos)	-emos (komemos)	-imos (bivimos)
vozotros	-ash (avlash)	-ésh (komésh)	-ísh (bivísh)
eyos	-an (avlan)	-en (komen) (biven)

Preterite

In Ladino, the preterite indicates that an action taken once in the past was also completed at some point in the past. This is as opposed to the imperfect tense which refers to any continuous, habitual, unfinished or repetitive past action. Thus, "I ate falafel yesterday" would use the first-person preterite form of eat, comí, whereas "When I lived in Izmir, I ran five miles every evening" would use the first-person imperfect tense form, koría. Though some of the morphology has changed, usage is just as in normative Castilian.

Typical conjugation:

	-ar verbs (avlar)	-er verbs (komer) and -ir verbs (bivir)
yo	-í (avlí)	-í (komí) (biví)
tu	-ates (avlates)	-ites (komites) (bivites)
el eya	-ó (avló)	-yó (komyó) (bivyó)
mozotros	-amos (avlamos)	-imos (komimos) (bivimos)
vozotros	-atesh (avlatesh)	-itesh (komitesh) (bivitesh)
eyos	-aron (avlaron)	-yeron (komyeron) (bivyeron)

Nouns in Ladino

Nouns: Gender

It is important to know the gender of nouns in Ladino so that the correct adjectives can be used with the noun. It is very simple to know if a noun is masculine or feminine with a few rules:

- Nouns ending in -or, such as kalor (heat) and kolor (color) are feminine.

- Nouns ending in -a such as klima (climate) and planeta (planet) are feminine.

- Most place names such as Ungaria (Hungary) will be feminine, as they end in -a.

- Everything else is masculine.

Adjectives in Ladino

Agreement

It is important that adjectives agree. What is agreement? Agreement is when a noun has the same gender and number as the noun it describes.