Plato

This is an introduction to the works of Plato. Plato is regarded by many to be one of the West’s greatest ancient philosophers. The student of Socrates and teacher of Aristotle, he wrote many books in his life time and here you will find a brief summary of his works. To find the actual books themselves, look at our sister project Wikisource.

Plato was born into an Athenian aristocratic family around 427/428 BC. His father Ariston was said to be an ancestor of the last king of Athens, Crodus and his mother Perictione was a relation of the Greek politician Solon. There is not much external information about Plato's early life and most of what we know has come from his own writings. His father died when Plato was young and his mother was remarried to her uncle Pyrilampes. It is very likely that Plato knew Socrates from early childhood. Perictione's cousin Critias and her brother Charmides are known to have been friends with Socrates and they themselves were part of the oligarchic leadership of 404 BC. These connections should have led to a political career for Plato but at some stage he made a decision not to enter political life. The oligarchic leadership collapsed and democracy was restored and considering that Plato's family members had been part of the oligarchic terror must have meant that his position in Athenian society was under scrutiny. The condemning to death of Socrates by the democracy seems to have been the final political act of the state that forced Plato into exile at Megara. Plato is known to have taken refuge with Eucleides, founder of the Megarian school of philosophy and it is stated by later historians that during this period in his life he travelled extensively through Greece, Italy and Egypt. Whether these journeys took place is disputed but it is known that Plato did travel to Sicily where he met Dion, brother-in-law of the ruler of Syracuse, Dionysius I.

Socratic dialogue

The Socratic dialogue (Greek Σωκρατικὸς λόγος or Σωκρατικὸς διάλογος) is a literary prose genre, developed in Greece around 400 BC. The best known examples are the dialogues of Plato and the Socratic works of Xenophon. Typical of the genre are the dialogue form and the moral and philosophical issues that the characters discuss.

The protagonist of each dialogue, both in Plato's and Xenophon's work, usually is Socrates who by means of a kind of interrogation tries to find out more about the other person's understanding of the moral issues. In the dialogues Plato presents Socrates as a simple man who confesses that he has little knowledge. Plato uses the character of Socrates to state the aims of the inquiry at the outset of the dialogue. The outcome of the dialogue is that Socrates demonstrates that the other person's views are inconsistent. In this way Plato is using Socrates to show Plato's view of the way to real wisdom. One of his most famous statements in that regard is "The unexamined life is not worth living." This philosophical questioning is known as the Socratic method. In some dialogues Plato's main character is not Socrates but someone from outside of Athens. In Xenophon's 'Hiero' a certain Simonedes plays this role when Socrates is not the protagonist.

A note on authorship

The ordering of the dialogues is based roughly on the standard division into tetralogies. Authorship in many cases is uncertain, as we only have Plato's works as handed down through many generations of translations, forgeries, etc. Please consult the following legend.

* It is generally agreed by scholars that Plato is not the author of this work.

** It is not generally agreed by scholars whether Plato is the author of this work.

*** Consult chapter on this individual work for notes on authorship.

Works of Plato

• Euthyphro

Central Themes:

• Piety and Religion
• Divine Command Theory

Socrates asks whether moral acts are good because the gods command them, or whether the gods command them because they are good. This dilemma still influences debates in ethics, religion, and moral objectivity.

• Apology

Central Themes:

• Socrates’ Defense: A record of Socrates' trial, defending himself against charges of corrupting youth and impiety.
• Philosophical Life: Argues that the unexamined life is not worth living.
• Moral Integrity: Refuses to give up philosophy or plead for acquittal dishonestly.

Socrates argues that he serves the gods by practicing philosophy and questioning assumptions. His calmness in facing death shows his belief in the immortality of the soul and the value of truth above life itself. This dialogue is a tribute to intellectual courage and moral responsibility.

• Crito

Central Themes:

• Obedience to Law: Explores the idea that one should respect laws, even when unjust.
• Justice vs. Expediency: Socrates refuses to escape from prison despite the opportunity.

Socrates uses a rational argument to explain why escaping from prison would harm the city’s laws. He personifies the Laws of Athens to show that one's relationship with the state is like a moral contract. This is an early argument for the social contract theory.

• Phaedo

Central Themes:

• Immortality of the Soul: Offers several arguments for the soul’s eternal nature.
• Philosophy as Preparation for Death: True philosophers seek to detach the soul from bodily pleasures.
• Theory of Recollection: The soul had prior knowledge before birth.

Set on Socrates’ last day, this dialogue presents a serene and logical argument for life after death. The soul, being non-material, is indestructible. Plato’s spiritual philosophy here deeply influenced Christian thought and metaphysical debates about the soul.

• Cratylus
• Theaetetus

Central Themes:

• What is Knowledge?
• Perception vs. Reality
• Philosophical Doubt and Inquiry

Plato explores definitions of knowledge, ultimately showing that none fully satisfy philosophical scrutiny. While inconclusive, it emphasizes that philosophy is a lifelong search for truth rather than a finished product.

• Sophist
• Statesman
• Parmenides
• Philebus
• Symposium

Central Themes:

• Nature of Love (Eros): Different speakers give speeches on love.
• Ladder of Love: From physical attraction to the love of pure Form of Beauty.

Plato presents Diotima’s speech as the climax, where love becomes a path toward divine truth and beauty. The dialogue shows how eros is not just physical but also spiritual, leading the soul upward toward the eternal and the divine.

• Phaedrus

Central Themes:

• Love and the Soul: Compares different types of love and their effect on the soul.
• Rhetoric vs. Truth: Critiques the use of persuasion without wisdom.
• The Charioteer Analogy: Represents the soul as a charioteer controlling two horses—one noble, one base.

Love is portrayed as divine madness that can help the soul recollect the Forms. It also critiques sophists and empty rhetoric, emphasizing that real persuasion must be rooted in truth. It blends metaphysics, psychology, and ethics.

• Alcibiades **
• Second Alcibiades *
• Hipparchus *
• Rival Lovers *
• Theages *
• Charmides
• Laches
• Lysis
• Euthydemus
• Protagoras
• Gorgias

Central Themes:

• Rhetoric vs. Philosophy: Condemns rhetoric as manipulation.
• Power and Morality: Challenges whether might makes right.
• The Good Life: Defined not by pleasure but by the health of the soul.

Socrates argues that rhetoric without moral guidance is dangerous. True power is not about dominating others but mastering oneself. It’s a direct attack on sophistry and unjust political power.

• Meno

Central Themes:

• Can Virtue Be Taught?
• Theory of Recollection: Knowledge is innate, and learning is remembering.
• Meno’s Paradox: How can one search for something if one doesn’t know what it is?

Using a slave boy, Socrates demonstrates how the mind already holds truths that can be recalled. This anticipates rationalism—the idea that reason, not experience, is the path to knowledge. The dialogue is foundational for epistemology.

• Greater Hippias **
• Lesser Hippias
• Ion
• Menexenus
• Clitophon
• Republic

Central Themes:

• Justice: Plato explores the definition of justice in both the individual and the state.
• The Ideal State: Divides society into three classes—rulers (philosopher-kings), auxiliaries (warriors), and producers (farmers, artisans).
• Philosopher King: The ideal ruler who has wisdom, rationality, and a love for truth.
• Theory of Forms: The world of physical appearances is inferior to the world of eternal Forms.
• Education and Censorship: Plato advocates for strict education and even censorship of literature to shape moral citizens.

Plato uses a fictional conversation mainly between Socrates and other Athenians to explore what justice means. He builds the idea of a just city (Kallipolis) to reflect the structure of a just soul. The famous "Allegory of the Cave" appears here, showing how education leads one out of ignorance and into the light of knowledge. This dialogue is foundational for political theory and moral philosophy.

• Timaeus

Central Themes:

• Cosmology: Explains the creation of the universe.
• The Demiurge: A divine craftsman who brings order to chaos.
• Mathematical Harmony: The universe is built on geometric and numerical ratios.

Plato combines philosophy with early science. The Demiurge does not create out of nothing but imposes form onto pre-existing matter. The cosmos, he argues, reflects eternal Forms and rational structure, influencing Neoplatonism and even early Christian theology.

• Critias
• Minos *
• Laws

Central Themes:

• Practical Political Philosophy: Unlike The Republic, this presents a more realistic second-best state.
• Rule of Law: Emphasizes the importance of laws over rulers.
• Mixed Constitution: Combines monarchy and democracy.

This is Plato's final and most pragmatic political dialogue. It addresses real-world governance issues and limits the absolute power of rulers. It introduces ideas like legal education, citizen participation, and public morality—concepts relevant even today.

• Epinomis *
• Letters ***
• Definitions *
• On Justice *
• On Virtue *
• Demodocus *
• Sisyphus *
• Halcyon *
• Eryxias *
• Axiochus *
• Epigrams ***

Quotes by Plato

➤ "Human behavior flows from three main sources: desire, emotion, and knowledge."

➤ "Ideas are the source of all things"

➤ "Ignorance, the root and steam of all evil".

Sources

• Plato: Complete Works, ed. Cooper, John M., 1997

All of the texts of Plato's Dialogues are available at the MIT Internet Classics Archive.

Works of Plato Political Science Solution