Radiation Oncology/Hodgkin/Overview
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Hodgkin's lymphoma: Main Page | Overview | Early stage | Advanced stage | Pediatric | Randomized |
Epidemiology
[edit | edit source]- About 14% of lymphomas; 1% of all cancers.
- Adult HD has bimodal age distribution: peaks at age 20-29 and again in the 50+ range
- Pediatric HD typically occurs 4-14 years old; marked male predominance 4:1
- 90% have disease in contiguous nodes (assuming para-aortics are contiguous to SCV via thoracic duct)
- Visceral involvement may be local extension or hematogenous; rare to GI lymphatics (Waldayer's ring or Peyer's patch)
Work-Up
[edit | edit source]- History: look for B symptoms. Also fatigue, alcohol-induced pain, pruritus.
- PE: Palpable nodes, palpable viscera
- Labs: CBC, blood chemistry, albumin, ESR
- Radiology: CXR, CT, PET
- Biopsy: LN excision; bone marrow Bx if B-symptoms, subdiaphragmatic disease or Stage III-IV disease
- Staging laparotomy no longer used
Classification
[edit | edit source]- Rye classification (1966)
- By Lukes and Butler. Presented at a conference in Rye, New York.
- Found that different subtypes have different prognoses:
- Lymphocyte predominant (most favorable)
- Nodular sclerosis (favorable)
- Mixed cellularity (guarded)
- Lymphocyte depleted (least favorable)
- World Health Organization (WHO) classification
- Classic Hodgkin lymphoma: CD 15+, CD 30+
- Nodular lymphocyte predominant CD 15-, CD 30-, CD 20+
Pathology
[edit | edit source]- Classic HL
- Presence of classic Hodgkin/Reed-Sternberg (HRS) cells
- Do not exhibit phenotypes typical of any normal cell
- CD15+; marker is expressed on granulocytes
- Somatic hypermutation of immunoglobulin genes, with VDJ rearrangement. This is typically seen only in germinal B cells and post-germinal B cells
- Study of patients with both HL and NHL shows they are clonally related, suggesting that initial transformation occurred in a germinal B cell. Subsequently, there are two distinct sets of molecular lesions, which lead to divergent phenotypes of HL and NHL
- HRS cells appear to lose their germinal B cell characteristics, and become unable to transcribe RNA for immunoglobulin due to impaired activation of Ig promoters
- There is also activation of NF-kB pathway, which leads to c-REL increase and promotion of lymphocyte transformation and prevention of apoptotic deletion
- There is a widespread genomic instability, which contributes to the strange nuclear appearance
- Presence of classic Hodgkin/Reed-Sternberg (HRS) cells
- Nodular lymphocyte predominant HL
- Prevalent tumor cell is "lymphocytic and histiocytic" (L&H) subtype of HRS cells
- Pathologically looks like popped corn
- Express B-cell markers
- Have multiple features that resemble normal germinal B-cells
- Classic HRS rare or absent; appears with multiple nuclear lobes and large nucleoli
- Prevalent tumor cell is "lymphocytic and histiocytic" (L&H) subtype of HRS cells
Prognostic Factors and Treatment Groups Definitions
[edit | edit source]Prognostic Risk Factors
- GHSG — Bulky disease (mediastinal mass >1/3 intrathoracic diameter); Extranodal disease; ESR >50 w/o B Sx's or >30 w/ B sx's; 3+ LN regions
- EORTC/GELA — Mediastinal mass > 0.35 intrathoracic diameter at T5/6; Age >=50, ESR >50 w/o B Sx's or >30 w/ B sx's; 4+ LN regions
- NCCN — Bulky disease (mediastinal mass on CXR > 1/3 intrathoracic diameter or any mass > 10 cm on CT); Age >=40; ESR >50 or B sx's; 4+ LN regions or 2+ extranodal sites
Note: The GHSG nodal areas include: left and right cervical (cervical, supra- and infraclavicular), left and right axillar, mediastinal (including bilateral hila), higher abdomen (portal, celiac and splenic), lower abdomen (para-aortic and mesenteric), left and right iliac and left and right inguinal. The EORTC only considers 5 supradiaphragmatic regions: left and right cervical (including supraclavicular), left and right axillar (including infraclavicular) and mediastinal (including bilateral hila).
EORTC Prognostic Score (Stage I-II)
Feature | 0 Points | 1 Point | 9 Points |
---|---|---|---|
Age | <40 | 40-49 | >=50 |
Gender | Female | Male | |
Stage | I | II2-3 | II4-5 |
Mediastinum | M/T ratio <0.35 | MT ratio >0.35 | |
B Symptoms / ESR | No B symptoms ESR <50 |
B Symptoms ESR <30 |
B Symptoms + ESR >=30 or ESR >50 |
Histology | LP-NS | MC-LD |
- Score 0: Very low risk
- Score 1-5: Favorable risk
- Score >=9: Unfavorable risk
Treatment groups
- Lymphocyte Predominant
- Early-stage favorable
- GHSG — stage I-II with no risk factors
- EORTC/GELA — stage I-II supradiaphragmatic with no risk factors
- NCCN — stage I-IIA, no risk factors
- Early-stage unfavorable
- GHSG — stage I, stage IIA with 1+ risk factors, or stage IIB w/ elevated ESR or 3+ LN regions (not bulky or extranodal disease)
- EORTC/GELA — stage I-II supradiaphragmatic with 1+ risk factors
- NCCN — Stage I-II, any risk factors
- Advanced stage
- GHSG — stage III-IV, or IIb w/ bulky or extranodal disease
- EORTC/GELA — stage III-IV
- NCCN — stage III-IV
Comparison of Definitions of Risk for Early Stage Disease
Study | Risk Grouping | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
German Hodgkin Study Group | High | Low | ||
mediastinal mass (>1/3 thoracic diameter) extranodal disease ≥ 3 nodal areas ESR >50 (if asymptomatic) or >30 (if symptomatic) |
no large mediastinal mass no extranodal disease < 3 nodal areas low ESR | |||
NCI-Canada / ECOG | Very High | High | Low | Very Low |
any mass > 10 cm mediastinal mass (≥1/3 thoracic diameter) intraabdominal disease |
age ≥ 40 yr ESR ≥ 50 mixed cellularity or lymphocyte depleted ≥ 4 sites of disease |
age < 40 ESR < 50 no mixed cellularity or lymphocyte depleted < 4 sites of disease |
single node <3 cm in upper neck or epitrochlear region lymphocyte predominant or nodular sclerosis ESR < 50 | |
EORTC | High | Low | Very Low | |
≥ 9 points | 1-5 points | 0 points | ||
NTI-Milan | High | Low | ||
nodal mass > 10 cm mediastinal mass (>1/3 thoracic diameter) pulmonary hilar involvement contiguous extranodal extension stage I with systemic symptoms |
no large nodal or mediastinal mass no systemic symptoms | |||
Dana-Farber Cancer Institute | High | Low | ||
any mass > 10 cm mediastinal mass (>1/3 thoracic diameter) |
no large nodal or mediastinal mass | |||
International Prognostic Score | High | Low | ||
≥ 3 points | 0-2 points | |||
adapted PMID 20818856 Full text -- "Early-Stage Hodgkin's Lymphoma" (Armitage JO, N Engl J Med 2010 Aug 12;363:653-662) |
Survival
[edit | edit source](from the NCI, 2003)
- Stage I - up to 90%
- Stage II - 78 - 90%
- Stage IIIA - 60 - 78%
- Stage IIIB - 50 - 60%
- Stage IV - 40 - 50%
Advanced / Bulky - cure rate 60-80% with combination chemotherapy
Prognostic factors
[edit | edit source]- British Columbia/University of Nebraska; 2010 PMID 20220182 -- "Tumor-associated macrophages and survival in classic Hodgkin's lymphoma." (Steidl C, N Engl J Med. 2010 Mar 11;362(10):875-85.)
- Retrospective. 130 frozen samples, classic HL. Gene expression profiling
- Outcome: Gene signature of tumor-associated macrophages (CD68+) associated with primary treatment failure (SS). In validation cohort, CD68+ macrophages correlated with shorter PFS (SS) and DSS (SS). In MVA, it outperformed IPS score. Patients with limited-stage disease without CD68+ macrophages had 100% DSS
- Conclusion: Increased number of tumor-associated macrophages associated with shortened survival in classic HL
Prognostic score for advanced Hodgkin disease: PMID 9819449 Full text — "A prognostic score for advanced Hodgkin's disease. International Prognostic Factors Project on Advanced Hodgkin's Disease." Hasenclever D et al. N Engl J Med. 1998 Nov 19;339(21):1506-14.
- Stage III-IV pts, treated 1983-92. Included a few with Stage I-II with high-risk features.
- 1 point for each. 7 prognostic factors, mnemonic "HAL SWAM": Hemoglobin < 10.5, Age 45 years or older, Lymphocytes < 600, Stage IV, WBC > 15,000, Albumin <4, Male sex.
- None: 84% FFP at 5 yrs; 1: 77%; 2: 67%; 3: 60%; 4: 51%; 5+: 42%
Other definitions of bulky disease: Many studies use 5cm or 6cm. (e.g., SWOG)
Chemotherapy regimens
[edit | edit source]- ABVD - Adriamycin, bleomycin, vinblastine, dacarbazine
- COPP - Cyclophosphamide, vincristine (Oncovin), procarbazine, and prednisone
- EBVP - Epirubicin, bleomycin, vinblastine, and prednisone. Used in EORTC H7.
- MOPP - Mechlorethamine, vincristine (Oncovin), procarbazine, prednisone
- Stanford V (1989-) - essentially MOP/ABV + etoposide - uses mechlorethamine, doxorubicin, vinblastine, vincristine, bleomycin, etoposide, and prednisone (uses decreased doxo, bleo, and mustard cumulative doses and is a shorter course over 12 wks. Originally used RT). PMID 7537796.
Standard of care is ABVD, which is superior or equivalent to MOPP, MOPP/ABVD, or MOPP-ABV
Comparison of gonadal toxicity:
- PMID 2408897 - ABVD vs MOPP. Complete recovery of sperm count in all male pts with ABVD.
Radiation fields
[edit | edit source]- Mantle field - suggestions per Fletcher's textbook, 3rd edition.
- Place isocenter midway between superior and inferior edges. Usually is near or slightly below the suprasternal notch.
- Borders: Superior - Midpoint of chin, along mandible, 2-3 cm above tip of mastoid. Inferior - near diaphragm, ~4 cm above xiphoid. Inferior axillary - 4th costochondral junction. Include ~1 cm of lung in lower axilla and 2-4 cm of lung in upper axilla. Lateral axillary - junction of lateral margin of pectoralis with deltoid. Exclude humeral heads. Mediastinum / hilum -
- Shield: larynx - thyroid notch to cricoid.
- Superior border of the PA field can be lowered to avoid irradiation of the oral cavity and cerebellum. Place border at thyroid notch.
- Modified mantle / mini-mantle - includes mediastinum, bilateral hila, supraclavicular. Excluded axilla and neck/occipital unless bulky disease present. From larynx to T10-12
- used in Stanford V protocol - PMID 7537796
- Waldeyer's ring (typically for NHL) - Lateral fields matched to lower neck field.
- Borders: Inferior - thyroid notch. Superior - 1 cm above zygomatic arch. Posterior - tragus, then posterior to sternocleidomastoid muscle. Anterior - orbital rim posteroinferiorly to 2nd molar and then forward along the mandible.
- Lower neck field: Superior - matches inferior border of lateral fields. Midline larynx shielding from thyroid notch to 1-2 cm below cricoid. Laterally to junction of trapezius with clavicles. Inferiorly 1-2 cm below clavicles.
- Para-aortic - top of T11 to bottom of L4
- Inverted Y - includes para-aortic + iliac + inguinal
- Total nodal irradiation (TNI) - Mantle followed by Inverted Y and spleen (usually after a break of 2-3 weeks between mantle and inverted Y).
- Sub-total nodal irradiation (STNI) - Mantle plus para-aortic + spleen. Excludes iliac + inguinal. Often used in females because of concern for fertility.
- Involved field:
- Involved field recommendations:
- Mediastinal disease - treat mediastinum + SCLV
- SCLV disease - treat ipsilateral neck
- Involved field recommendations:
- Involved site radiotherapy
- Involved node radiotherapy
Field design
[edit | edit source]General:
- UK National Cancer Research Institute
- 2013: PMID 22889569 Full text -- "Recommendations for the use of radiotherapy in nodal lymphoma." (Hoskin PJ, Clin Oncol (R Coll Radiol). 2013 Jan;25(1):49-58.)
- Treatment volumes: Wide field, Involved Field, Involved Site, Involved Node
- Dose
- Dose constraints
- 2013: PMID 22889569 Full text -- "Recommendations for the use of radiotherapy in nodal lymphoma." (Hoskin PJ, Clin Oncol (R Coll Radiol). 2013 Jan;25(1):49-58.)
- International Lymphoma Radiation Oncology Group
- 2013: PMID 23790512Full text--"Modern Radiation Therapy Hodgkin Lymphoma: Field and Dose Guidelines from the International Lymphoma Radiation Oncology Group (ILROG)" (Specht L, IJROBP Jun 2013)
- Describes involved site radiation therapy for Hodgkins disease utilizing modern radiation techniques and intended to replace involved field radiation.
- 2013: PMID 23790512Full text--"Modern Radiation Therapy Hodgkin Lymphoma: Field and Dose Guidelines from the International Lymphoma Radiation Oncology Group (ILROG)" (Specht L, IJROBP Jun 2013)
Involved field:
- CALGB guidelines - PMID 12078908 Full text (2002) — "The involved field is back: issues in delineating the radiation field in Hodgkin's disease." Yahalom J et al. Ann Oncol. 2002;13 Suppl 1:79-83.
- Boundaries of the involved fields.
Treatment
[edit | edit source]Need to add these
[edit | edit source]- Bonadonna G, Zucali R, Monfardini S, et al: Combination chemotherapy of Hodgkin's disease with adriamycin, bleomycin, vinblastine, and imidazole carboxamide versus MOPP. Cancer 36:252-259, 1975
- Carde P, Hagenbeek A, Hayat M, et al: Clinical staging versus laparotomy and combined modality with MOPP versus ABVD in early-stage Hodgkin's disease: The H6 twin randomized trials from the European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer Lymphoma Cooperative Group. J Clin Oncol 11:2258-2272, 1993
- Santoro A, Bonadonna G, Valagussa P, et al: Long-term results of combined chemotherapy-radiotherapy approach in Hodgkin's disease: Superiority of ABVD plus radiotherapy versus MOPP plus radiotherapy. J Clin Oncol 5:27-37, 1987
Response Criteria
[edit | edit source]- Lugano Classification
- 2014 PMID 25113753 -- "Recommendations for initial evaluation, staging, and response assessment of Hodgkin and non-Hodgkin lymphoma: the Lugano classification." (Cheson DB, J Clin Oncol. 2014 Sep 20;32(27):3059-68.)
- International Harmonization Project on Lymphoma; 2007 PMID 17242396 -- "Revised response criteria for malignant lymphoma." (Cheson BD, J Clin Oncol. 2007 Feb 10;25(5):579-86. Epub 2007 Jan 22.)
- Guidelines incorporating PET, IHC, and flow cytometry for definitions of response in NHL and HD. Standardized definitions of end points
Treatment toxicity
[edit | edit source]Radiation:
- JCRT, 1990 (1969-84) - PMID 2105920 — "Thoracic irradiation in Hodgkin's disease: disease control and long-term complications." Tarbell NJ et al. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1990 Feb;18(2): 275-81.
- Mantle irradiation. Pneumonitis 3% in those receiving RT alone. 2.2% pericarditis. 25% thyroid disorders.
Second malignancies:
Chemotherapy:
- JNCI, 2002 (1965-1994) - PMID 11830608 — "Lung cancer following chemotherapy and radiotherapy for Hodgkin's disease." Travis LB et al. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2002 Feb 6;94(3):182-92.
- Risk of lung cancer after alkylating agents occurs soon after treatment and incidence increases with increasing dose of chemotherapy.
- JNCI, 2007 (1967-2000) - PMID 17284715 — "Myocardial infarction mortality risk after treatment for Hodgkin disease: a collaborative British cohort study." Swerdlow AJ et al. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2007 Feb 7;99(3):206-14.
- Radiation and ABVD both independently increase the risk of MI mortality.
Summary of trials
[edit | edit source]- Stanford trials, 1985 (1962-84) - PMID 3881376 — "The evolution and summary results of the Stanford randomized clinical trials of the management of Hodgkin's disease: 1962-1984." Rosenberg SA et al. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1985 Jan;11(1):5-22.
Reviews
[edit | edit source]- University of Pennsylvania; 2008 PMID 19028275 -- "Radiotherapy for early-stage Hodgkin's lymphoma: a 21st century perspective and review of multiple randomized clinical trials." (Bar AV, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2008 Dec 1;72(5):1472-9.)
- British Columbia; 2005 PMID 16155026 — "State-of-the-Art Therapeutics: Hodgkin's Lymphoma." Connors JM et al. Journal of Clinical Oncology, Vol 23, No 26 (September 10), 2005: pp. 6400-6408.