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Issue 4 - Power

Power in Global Development

Introduction

In contemporary academia, one tends to refer to the global north as "developed" and to the global south as "developing". But when it comes to the disciplinary factors leading up to this distinction, some of the lines are more blurred than one might expect. These paragraphs are going to provide a short insight into the economic and political analysis of this phenomenon and will aim to shed light on the western importance of this distinctive characterisation.

Factors that influence power inequality in development

Economic perspective

When it comes to the economic prosperity of a nation, the 21st century tends to always point back to the free-market, neoliberal economic model. However, what most people fail to recognise is that neoliberal policies often fail to provide the prosperity most countries wish to accomplish. One of the currently most capitalistic nations, the United States of America, actually achieved its fortunate economic status, not through a free-market, but a rather protectionist Hamiltonian economy. When neoliberal economic policies are suddenly implemented in countries with low economic development, they oftentimes lead to the exploitation of the given country, as at that moment these countries are still lacking both the regulations and the facilities to "protect themselves" from other, much more developed nations in free-trade. In the political analysis, the paragraph is going to detail why the above-mentioned provision of backwards "economic aid" is a conscious decision made by western political leaders.

Political perspective

Due to the recent developments of the global political and economic landscapes, many started questioning the intentions of western countries when promoting "financial prosperity for all", especially when it is supposed to be achieved through an already questionable mean such as free-market capitalism. Even most western countries are already starting to witness the destructive side-effects of a neoliberal economy. Recent studies suggest that western leaders possibly only promote the image of prosperity to try and hide the fact that they do not actually wish for everyone to prosper and in the meantime gain much more from developing countries than they provide in return. According to research done by the BBC, if everyone were to live like an average American, it would take four Earths to sustain the current global population. Therefore, many argue that the "economic aid" promoted by the global north for the global south is consciously backfiring, not to mention the effects of possible corruption that would also influence the amount of aid actually "making it" to countries in need.

Evaluation

These paragraphs aimed to display how an interdisciplinary perspective is able to give a holistic demonstration of the inequalities in global development dynamics. The economic and political analyses support and reinforce each other in stating the obvious western exploitation present in current developing countries. What is granted as "economic-aid" might be a fairly inaccurate portrayal of the western power's influence.

Power in Oriental Studies

Introduction

This section will discuss the influence of power within the interdisciplinary field of oriental studies, focusing on Orientalism. Most of the research and publications in oriental studies are from a western perspective, and it can be argued that the lack of research from an unbiased and representative perspective across disciplines is a result of power influences that are legacies of colonialism.

Orientalism can be defined as the “scholarship, learning, or study in Asian subjects or languages” . However, negative connotations of imperialism and colonialism have been reinforced by academic discourse, in books such as ‘Orientalism’, published by Edward Said in 1978, whom conceptualised Orientalism as a "systemic discipline" where Europeans controlled the perception of the Orient "politically, sociologically, militarily, ideologically, scientifically and imaginatively during the Enlightenment period" .

Power influences within disciplines

History and Art

Figure 1: Eugène Delacroix, Women of Algiers in their Apartment, 1834, Oil on canvas, 180 × 229cm Louvre

Historically, Orientalist referred to Western scholars who specialised in Oriental studies, and wanted to study Indian, Arab and Islamic cultures as equal to western cultures. This was especially prolific in France during the 19th century, with the French Society of Orientalist Painters being founded in 1893, allowing artists to create a distinguished art movement of Orientalist paintings. Leading artists in the movement include Eugène Delacroix (1798–1863) (figure 1) and Jean-Léon Gérôme (1824–1904). However, many artists captivated by eastern mysticism and eroticism travelled and recorded their impression of eastern culture and society, but with political agendas, and others based impressions on their imaginations without visiting the countries they were depicting.

According to Foucault, knowledge is used as a form of power through the creation of truth. As argued, discourse is a social construction that is based upon hierarchical structure, and governing and curating knowledge will influence the historical narrative that defines a society, their cultures and religions. Depictions of the Orient are criticised as avoiding resemblance to “whiteness” or Western attributes, and instead made eastern societies synonymous with mystery, barbarism, sexual submissiveness. Here, a binary opposition of the 'west' and 'east' is created according to Saussurean's structuralist theory. By generating the definition of the East as ‘the other’ using antithetical attributes to the Occident, the West also created an identity and definition for itself that reinforced their portrayal of the Occident as a superior and civil society. This demonstrates how power in the discipline, enabled by a hegemony of power relations, has allowed these imaginations to become accepted facts, robbing the societies of their identity, and creating disciplines based upon subjective interpretation of cultures.

Political philosophy

The discipline of political philosophy was invented by Plato and Aristotle. Based on rationalism, the study aims to understand what is a good, just and ethical life, and created a "political space" where a distinction is made between the "inside" and "outside". The inside of the political space comprised of Greeks, with the outside constituting "orientals", who were considered to lack rationality and natural attributes of those on the 'inside' of the political space. The 'outsiders' were considered 'not Greek' and incapable of being so. This demonstrates how the Orient was perceived as a moral threat to the rationalism of the Greek society.

Furthermore, rationalism in political philosophy leads to the need to classify ideas and people. This classification, combined with prejudices resulted in the binary classification of the Greeks and the Orientals, similar to that of the West and the East, created through 19th century art. Rationalism further justified, not only classification, but the need to rank the classified into a hierarchy, which leads to the perception of the superior and inferior. A perception had thus been created through political philosophy that the Other was incapable of understanding justice and being just .

Post-colonial film studies

Figure 2: A musical score of songs, arranged by W. Meyer Lutz, for the production of Aladdin, at the Gaiety Theatre, London

Misrepresentation has proliferated even in postmodern media, such as in film, with post-structuralist analyses criticising Eurocentric misrepresentations of cultures and characterisation of the Other.

For example, analysis of popular films such as in the 1992 Disney film Aladdin, shows how Western culture depicts a constructed reality of eastern culture. Interestingly, the original story was set in China rather than the Arab world, with the early 19th and 20th-century versions mixing Chinese elements with European elements. For example, the 1880 musical burlesque version, played by an actor in 'yellowface', in a culturally European setting (see figure 2). This misrepresentation of the Orient continued into the modern 1992 adaption. Mystical exoticism is used, with the mythical Arab city of Agrabah described as a “city of mystery.” Furthermore, Jasmine is portrayed as a princess who wishes to escape her oppressive culture; citizens are shown as barbarous and violent, whereas the main protagonist Aladdin as well as the Genie are culturally American through character design and humour that draws on American pop culture. The result is similar to that of misrepresentation is art, with the reinforcement of cultural stereotypes and the perception of the Occident as the cultured antithesis to the Orient .

Evaluation & the case for interdisciplinary research

Power and it's influence on creation and control of knowledge, as well as imperialist influences in art, film and politics, have impacted the study of eastern societies. The bias of research and depictions being carried out by western researchers predominately from France and Britain, needs to be deconstructed in the post-colonial world. Critical analysis of art, literature and other depictions by understanding geographical and historical context is essential. Orientalism must be viewed as interdisciplinary topic, with analysis of History, Art, Politics, Geography and politics. Said believed that cross-fertilisation of the disciplines allowed for varied perceptions. Analysis of Said in particular, who conceptualised the term 'Orientalism' has highlighted that his chosen position as the 'amateur' allowed him to delve into discipline such as politics, psychology, history and art to achieve an interdisciplinary perspective in his book. The strategy of interdisciplinary critique has become popularised among progressive scholars who utilise critical methodologies in their research and analysis. This provides a case for deconstructing power and hierarchy within the disciplines using interdisciplinary analysis.

Power in Geography

Certain geographical circumstances can be seen as 'inherently powerful', in that they allow for certain later advantages to the people who are able to utilise them. If they do, then this can have a resounding impact though a 'butterfly effect' causal relationship, leading to lasting consequences for people and societies far removed from the initial location.

Geographical determinism

Jared Diamond is one of the key figures of the 20th century that revived discussion around the theory that the initial physical environment of different groups of peoples was (and continues to be) key to the explanation for why power relationships in the world are what they are today (geographical determinism). In his Pulitzer-prize winning book, Guns, Germs, and Steel, he discusses Western political and cultural dominance throughout the centuries in this light. How flora and fauna impact food production, which impacts the rate of further development of a given society is a central part of his argument.

Location as determining cultural development

In his book The Geography of Genius, Eric Weiner sets out to investigate whether the etymology behind the word "genius" - genius loci, 'spirit of a place', points to the 'clustered genius' of groups of people in certain cities over the centuries being contingent on the cities themselves. He examines various historical circumstances to explain the origins of the clusters, but comes to not one definite common characteristic among the cities he selects (Athens, Edinburgh, Kolkata, Vienna). Some conditions that may predispose a place to harbouring genius is chaos/stress/worry over something, which leads to the need for problem-solving and inspires creativity; /etc/

Geography and military operations

Landscape has long been an important factor to consider in any battle strategy. Being able to use one's geographical surroundings to one's advantage, even those of a foreign land, can sometimes lead to military victory when one is very outnumbered - the Battle of Austerlitz is a case in point. Geography is thereore an important factor to consider when analysing historical power shifts caused by war victory, with the latter being interesting to consider in light of geographical determinism.

- carthography as expressing the dominant viewpoint (Western European maps)

- the Silk Road (& trade routes in general)

- Tambora, 1816, Mary Shelley?

- use of /geographical?/ phenomena to symbolise holy anger -> reinforcing religious power structures (earthquakes, draught, floods; Noah's Ark, Moses' seven plagues?)

- affecting global knowledge (Dark Ages, anthropology's 'discovery' of Melanesian art & its influence, juxtaposing relevant examples from different parts of the world to arrive at theory that explains all things)

- cholera epidemic from ATK /complexity/ presentation?

Power in classical music

This article will focus on power issues regarding gender in classical music. There are other issues that could and should be addressed, for example the exclusion of minorities and disabilities in orchestras and the classical music world, but this focuses merely on gender issues.

A 2014 Survey has shown that from 150 top conductors of the world only five are female. Only 13 % of all performed contemporary pieces are composed by women (2018). Until 1913 women were only allowed to play in woman’s orchestras, the first of those started playing in 1898  under Mary Wurm, a student of Clara Schumann. In 1913 the Queen’s Hall Orchestra in London accepted, but were still excepted to only play certain instruments, such as violin and harp. And this, in some respect, has still not changed: In 2014 97% of orchestral brass players were male. The first female harpist and musician, Edna Phillips, to take a place in an American orchestra, namely the Philadelphia Orchestra, in 1930, did not feel welcomed at her workplace. The Vienna Philharmonic was an all-male orchestra until 1997, even though their first female member, harpist, Anna Lelkes, had played with them before, although publicly unacknowledged.

In her research conducted in several youth orchestras in the UK in 2016, sociologist Anna Bull, notices that authority of male conductors in youth orchestras leads to girls seeing themselves as unable to perform those authoritative jobs. She observes the „gendered authority, which is central to classical music practice“ and how the status of male conductors in youth orchestras supports gender norms. This process mainly takes place in the middle class and is different to other authoritative situations, as it has a „non-linguistic, affective, embodied power“. The rehearsals bring together both public and private place and authority and intimacy. There the conductor’s state is seen as „absolute“, he is the only one speaking for most of the rehearsal time, while the youth plays after his wishes. The conductors Bull has observed in her study all understated or denied their role of power, but stressed the openness of the rehearsal process, which when closer examined did not actually exist. As classical music has not been subject to sociological critique for a long time, it is highly necessary.

Power in Architecture

The built environment is underpinned with elements of power in its intention to organise, house and influence the general public. The influence of public architecture influences many areas including healthcare, housing, religion, politics and commerce. How a space is designed, its audience and its intention are all key questions in evaluating elements of power within architecture. This issue is approached by Sam Stein in "Gentrification and The Real Estate State", where he states "Planners operate in a system that must appear open to the public, whilst simultaneously guaranteeing that ultimate power resides in the hands of properties elites".

Power in Social Housing

The UK saw a rapid rise in social housing projects following the end of the first world war as, the then Prime Minister, David Lloyd George wished to improve the domestic lifestyles of returning soldiers. This led to high standard social housing with a driving force of high quality of living. For example average wall heights of 8ft (higher than average in the UK today) and a minimum 70ft distance between housing rows to increase the amount of light entering homes. Social historian John Boughton remarked that "Council homes were initially for the more affluent working classes. They were far from slum housing.".

A similar surge is seen post WWII. However, to cope with an increased number of returning soldiers and the damage of bombings, the government sought to decrease spending in order to maximise the number of homes built. This led to the development of many prefabricated bungalows which, although intended to last for around a decade, would remain for many years. It also saw the introduction of Precast Reinforced Concrete for longer lasting, cheap and quick to build housing.

Grade II Listed "Balfron Tower" - Poplar, East London. Site of a major redevelopment project, criticised for gentrification.

Redevelopment or Slum-Clearing

The Housing Act of 1930 sough to designate "redevelopment areas" in order to remove residents from housing deemed to be unsatisfactory and relocate them to more suitable accommodation. This strategy persisted throughout the 20th century and has faced much criticism. Critics argue that the process only serves to improve quality on life on paper and ultimately fails to address the underlying factors that will result in the inequalities prevalent in the original housing.

Right - to - Buy

Whilst proposed by the previous Labour government, in 1980, Margaret Thatcher's Government implemented the the Housing Act (1980) within which renters of council housing were offered large discounts on purchasing the properties they rented. This was initially received gladly by those living in council estates who saw the scheme as a step towards a better quality and a sense of greater ownership over their homes. However, some argue that it drove a segregation between those who bought their homes and those who still rented properties. It is also seen by some as an early root of the current housing crises as the sale of so many properties led to a great depletion of public assets.

Social Housing Rejuvenation

Ageing social housing must be maintained or improved to cater for residents. However, this can lead to gentrification, or so-called 'Art-Washing', whereby social housing projects are driven by aesthetic design over a priority of rational function for the intended audience. This process can lead to an increase in price of the housing as its audience expands from the original groups who seek a form of cheap housing to cater for their lower incomes to an audience that is willing to pay a greater sum for a project deemed to have greater artistic or architectural value.

Power arises as an issue in the study of social housing through the imbalance of power between those that supply and those who wish to obtain such property. Often those with the greatest need of affordable housing are of a lower income and so are, in turn, often of lower influence in the planning, construction and distribution of social housing. Whilst the study of social housing is often occupied with the large scale planning and legislature involved in construction, it could be argued that the needs of the audience are often overlooked due to such imbalances in power. Furthermore, the gentrification of past social housing projects, to improve quality and so drive up desirability and economic value, inevitably drives away lower income families or individuals who are, perhaps, most at need of accommodation.

This reflects a power dynamic that underlies social housing. There is a conflict of interest between supplying housing for those with lower incomes (as an introductory property) and increasing profits by supplying property to a wealthier audience. Crucially, those who are arguably in greatest need of such housing, have the least power over its development.

Ableism in Architecture

Architecture often struggles with the issue of accessibility and ableism. In the US, up until the 1970s, so-called ugly laws were in effect, outlawing the public appearance of people deemed unsightly in public. This included disabilities of many kinds, meaning that there was no consideration for accessibility for the disabled population. Architecture kept to the standards of good design, with respects only to aesthetic appearance. In other, more historic places, the inaccessible nature of the cityscape is associated with its historic charm. It can create a struggle between making the architecture more accessible and keeping the historical accuracy of a building. Oftentimes, when confronted, authorities will claim that accessibility is an issue of money, and many places, like Canada, do not have concise plans or laws for fighting ableism, leaving it to individuals and organisations to make the cityscape or wheelchair friendly. Another aspect of ableist architecture can be found in air travel. While there is the obvious lack of consideration for disabled passengers, such as untrained staff, damages that occur to mobility devices during the flight, etc., the design of the planes itself poses a big challenge as well. The trend of trying to cut down on costs leads to the drastic reduction of leg-space and aisle width. This poses a great challenge to people with impaired mobility or obese passengers and is entirely connected to the physical build and design of the aircraft.

Architectural Propaganda

Power in policing

In this piece I will look at power in policing and specifically the tactic of stop and search.

The tactic of using stop and search, was first introduced in the 1981 to tackle high levels of crime in south london, specifically Brixton. Police stopped and searched hundreds of mainly black youths. The operation was a Major catalyst for the Brixton riots in April of 1981.

New rules on the way police can use the tactic have been introduced, for example generally they need reasonable evidence that the suspect has been involved in a crime or carrying illegal items. However, still today it remains one of the most controversial police tactics and is frequently referenced when talking about racism with the police.

A report by the 'Equality and Human Rights Commission' in 2010, concluded that police across the country disproportionately used the tactic against black and Asian people. It stated 'the pattern of entrenched disproportionate use of stop and search powers' correlates to 'evidence on racial prejudice and stereotyping'. This idea of racial prejudice as a driving force for how police chose who to stop and search is problematic. As the report explains, if police are making decisions based on prejudices and generalised beliefs, rather than objective evidence the tactic is not being used in a lawful way. The findings in this report are still relevant today, for example in 2018 black people were nine times more likely to be stopped and searched than white people. Furthermore Theresa May's relaxation of regulation around the tactic this year has worsen the imbalance between racial groups.

Studies have shown that the disproportionate is in part caused by decision making based on racial bias. Stop and search is 60% linked to drugs, and David Lammy, the MP for Tottenham believes the discrimination is 'grounded in the fictitious narrative that drug use is especially prevalent among black and minority ethnic groups'. However the stereotype of drug use and increasing like-hood of criminality among particularity black men, is not backed by evidence-only 16% of stop and searches of black people involving knives resulted in arrest compared 21% for white people, in 2019.

However, in the context of knife rising 7% this year, police have backed the bias of stop and search against Black youths stating 'Knife crime and street violence disproportionately affects boys and young men, particularly of African-Caribbean heritage both in terms of victims and perpetrators.'. However there is a continually debate over the link of crime and race particularity to do with knife crime in London. Earlier this year Theresa May relaxed stop and search regulations under Section 60 , to allow for police to stop and search without 'reasonable grounds' for doing so, in areas most affected by knife crime.

Stop and Search as a tactic is reported to be an extremely effective: 'Stop and search is a hugely effective power when it comes to disrupting crime, taking weapons off our streets and keeping us safe', Sajid Javid, home secretary. However evidence has repeatedly show that it has limited impact, the governments own research concluded “some have questioned whether the reduction in the use of stop and search drives an increase in violence, the data does not support such a conclusion.”.

Overall the tactic of stop and search, highlights problems of racism and discrimination by the police, even if sub-consciously. It is a controversial tactic that arguably increases tensions between communities and police, as well as showing how police power can be used to oppress and further marginalise minority groups. Furthermore, big questions around its effectiveness, make it a tactic that perhaps creates alot more problems than it solves.

Pornography and its power to encourage sexual liberation

Eastside Arcade

While the damaging effects of mainstream porn today are uncontestable in that they form a sexual narrative that doesn't reflect reality or promote a healthy alternative to reality. However, while the power of pornography at empowering certain groups is done at a small scale today, it is arguable that pornography isn't problematic by nature but rather by the way it is used today, i.e. in what it portrays. Indeed, the idea that damaging pornography (pornography that objectifies certain groups on the basis of discriminatory stereotypes) is a symptom of Discrimination and Objectification rather than an origin is a view that is shared between multiple pornography advocates.

Therefore, the main argument of pornography advocates today is that the industry has the power to shift today's sexual narratives in favour of healthier, less problematic narratives and eventually, become a manifestation of minority advancement and empowerment. This is precisely what the arising field of ethical porn (i.e. pornography that promotes consent and health in its practice) seeks to establish. This area of the industry validates more 'niche' sexual preferences, therefore broadening the spectrum of sexual liberation. The driving view in this field is the idea articulated by Cindy Gallop that, “When you force anything into the darkness, you make it much easier for bad things to happen, and much harder for good things to happen. The answer is not to shut down. The answer is to open up.” This could explain why a study undertaken at Minnesota State University wrote that "Two qualitative studies have found that gay, bisexual, and queer men report very few negative effects of porn consumption." . Indeed, while pornography can be degrading for certain minorities it also validates various sexual preferences. It is in this way that some Liberal Feminists promote pornography as a medium for sexual liberation and personal fulfilment.

Other advocates of pornography claim that the variety in sexual categories on pornographic sites, while often driven by stereotypes, have led to the uncovering and acceptance of different sexual preferences, facilitating personal sexual fulfilment. This provides a platform for certain sexual fantasies to escape repression, find acceptance and eventually, liberation. Brian McNair introduces this notion in 2002 as the 'democratization of desire" in his book, Striptease CUlture: Sex, media and the democratization of desire.

While opponents of pornography criticise it for encouraging sexually dangerous behaviour, others claim that for mentally stable individuals, access to pornography doesn't have real impact on their sexual behaviour, whereas for unstable counterparts, it can aggravate sexual impulses. Some have therefore suggested that restricting access shouldn't be applied to everyone, but rather to defined targets.

Power of Education

This article focuses on the impacts of education, specifically in less developed countries. Fundamental to development and growth, education is crucial as it allows people to acquire essential skills and knowledge. Although education is deemed a basic human right, many still do not have access to it.

Economical impact of education

The Poverty Cycle occurs when poor people lack the necessary resources to improve their current situation, resulting in them being trapped in a continuous cycle of poverty which could be transmitted from generation to generation. People with low incomes tend to have a lower productivity and earnings, thus resulting in their inability to make investments to better their current situation. Similarly, looking at the bigger picture, when a country has a less productive workforce, it would have a smaller or possibly negative economic growth. Since education is a merit good the social benefits are greater than the individual benefits. With educated individuals, productivity of the workforce increases, resulting in greater output and increased economic growth which could potentially attract foreign investments.

Social impact of education

In a journal series titled Policy Futures in Education, it shows how education for females can spearhead multiple social changes. First and foremost, educating mothers has a massive impact as they are provided with basic knowledge such as how to care for their child. As mothers usually have a bigger responsibility in caring for their children, a mother's level of education influences the quality of care and given to them, overall raising the standard of living for their children, families and communities. Furthermore, giving girls an education aids in decreasing the occurrence of child marriages. In a study conducted, it showed that "girls who have no education are three times as likely to marry by 18 compared to girls with secondary or higher education". This is partly due to the fact that girls who have access to education have a higher chance of avoiding child marriages as they are more knowledgeable and can make better informed decisions, thus delaying possible child marriages.

power in art to fight for political cause

Artists can play an effective counter-power role in combating abuses of power, using the paper on the exhibition of Frida Kahlo at the Vya Museum. The document makes it possible to realize how Frida subversively denounced the Indo-American roots of her country that were hidden by the authoritarian regime of General Porfirio Diaz. It also denounces the economic abuses of the United States with respect to Mexico.

First, photos show that Frida is dressed in costumes and necklaces inspired by pre-Hispanic folklore. One of them depicts the Tehuana costume that Frida used to wear. Also, in the photo taken by the famous photographer Nickolas Muray, Frida has in her hand, a Tolteca statue, which can be interpreted as a way to forcefully vindicate Mexico’s indigenous past.

Second, in the self-portrait that is called "Border between Mexico and the United States", Frida painted, on the left side, the spiritual richness of the Mexican world that is symbolized by a pre-Columbian temple and contrasts, on the right side of the picture, with the materialism of the industrial world of the United States. The link between the two parts is a wire that connects an American machine to a root of Mexico, which can be read as a criticism of the United States for wanting to appropriate Mexico’s natural resources. Between the two parts of the picture, as a border between the two countries, Frida turned to the Mexican side and holding a flag

Art, in general, can be a useful tool to fight against dictatorships and political power abuses, so the example of Frida Kahlo shows. We have also seen that civic education can contribute to combating gender-based violence in the domestic sphere. In the end, we have seen that some exemplary leaders can, thanks to their extraordinary vision, also effectively use the counter-power of the press to try to promote a change in society.

Power in Health within Pornography

The area of health, concerning the wellbeing of actors, relates to the issue of power in pornography through inequality in access to services and influence over the use of preventive measures.

The lack of access to health resources for adult film actors results from the freelance nature of their work. As described by Danny Wylde, actors are paid for individual jobs. They, therefore, lack health insurance or any facilitated access to health services. Danny Wylde's career was ruined because of the industry's excessive use of Sildenafil (viagra) .

Erectile dysfunction (Erection)

There is an increase in STDs within the porn industry: nearly 50% of 168 actors studied were either tested positive to having chlamydia, gonorrhea or both. . These actors are exposed more frequently to STDs and STIs yet receive no health support once infected.

However, in the Netherlands, sex workers are "encouraged but not required" to have screenings for diseases and infections multiple times a year . and are protected by free government-funded healthcare. This validates sex work as a profession and implies that adult film actors aren't faced with inequalities in access to healthcare.

Another representation of power in pornography is the disapproval of the use of condoms which undeniably increases transmissions between actors. A study found that filmmakers believe the use of condoms decreases the "marketability" of porn, resulting in a minimal percentage of heterosexual porn being shot using such preventive measures, encouraging workers to put themselves at risk . These power dynamics within pornography pervade the disciplines of health and economics.

Power in Philosophy

The discipline of philosophy has been shaped by the power dynamics of Western societies. The discipline focuses mainly on male philosophers of the Western World (Greece, France, Germany, and the UK), dismissing Asian and Arabic philosophers although they birthed influential theories

Furthermore, philosophy has generalized the male point of view, often excluding women from the concept of universality. Indeed, women have either been excluded from philosophical discussions or their feminity has been criticized. Philosophical concepts that are fundamental to the discipline, such as reason and objectivity, can be considered incomplete as they don't include women's point of view. It is only with the rise of feminist philosophy that feminity has started to be considered in such discussions and the input of feminist philosophers has furthered and added a new depth to the philosophical inquiry of the nature of the self, of the relationship between the natural and the social, and of knowledge.

The Philosopher by Keith Godwin, Harlow, Essex.jpg

The caricatural image of the philosopher being a white male with a beard makes it hard for those who don't fit said image to feel included in that discipline. Studies show that women represent only 17% of full-time academic staff in philosophy in the US and 29% in the UK and Patrice Haynes, senior lecturer in philosophy, reports that there are only five black philosophers, three being woman, in the UK. The lack of inclusivity in philosophy is a reflection of the ways of thinking of important philosophers in the past that are no longer relevant in the modern academic world.