Canadian Criminal Sentencing/Print version

Introduction

Preface

This text was written as a reference on the law of sentencing for criminal offences. The audience for this text will be mostly criminal law practitioners, police officers, and law students, who need a convenient way to look up principles and case law. Where possible there are links to cited cases on CanLII for ease of reference.

Organization of the Book

The book is organized into six sections. The book begins covering the principles and factors of sentencing that apply to just about every sentencing hearing.

The second section reviews the available sentences to a sentencing judge. There are the obvious tools of jail, probations and fines, as well as the many additional options available from ancillary sentencing orders.

The next section covers the procedural elements of sentencing, much of it focusing on the evidential rules that set out what the judge can consider when crafting an appropriate sentence.

The fourth section covers the principles and case law associated with specific offences. Certain offences include lengthy tables of prior sentences as references.

The following section cover special issues raised post-sentence by parole as well as the manner of dealing with the most dangerous offenders with Long-Term Orders and Dangerous Offender Orders. The final section deals with the particular rules around sentencing of youths.

Purpose and Principles of Sentencing

Introduction

The purpose and principles of sentencing provide a guidance to judges in applying the available sentences for particular offenders. The sentencing regime in the criminal code and case law sets out the goals at play in all sentences. These goals can come in conflict with each other and so must be balanced against each other in every case. The principles of sentencing guide a judge in determining how these goals are balanced and how to achieve the most appropriate disposition.

Sections 718 to 718.2 codify the objectives and principles of sentencing and are intended to “bring greater consistency and clarity” to sentencing.

The system of sentencing is not simply a method of imposing penalties or costs upon an offender to prevent harmful conduct, but rather the system is to impose sentences which "positively instills the basic set of values shared by all Canadians as expressed by the Criminal Code."

The courts must bring the law, including sentencing, into harmony with the prevailing social values and so must reflect changes in these values.

Purpose of Sentencing

The purposes of sentencing are laid out in section 718 of the Criminal Code:

Purpose
718. The fundamental purpose of sentencing is to contribute, along with crime prevention initiatives, to respect for the law and the maintenance of a just, peaceful and safe society by imposing just sanctions that have one or more of the following objectives:

(a) to denounce unlawful conduct;

(b) to deter the offender and other persons from committing offences;

(c) to separate offenders from society, where necessary;

(d) to assist in rehabilitating offenders;

(e) to provide reparations for harm done to victims or to the community; and

(f) to promote a sense of responsibility in offenders, and acknowledgment of the harm done to victims and to the community.

– CCC

As stated, the fundamental purpose is that there be "respect for the law" and the maintenance of a "just, peaceful and safe society".

There is no single "sentencing objective [that] trumps the other". It is to "the sentencing judge to determine which objective or objectives merit the greatest weight, given the particulars of the case."

Denunciation - s.718(a)

Section 718(a) sets out the objective of "denounc[ing] unlawful conduct". The principle of denunciation "mandates that a sentence should communicate society's condemnation of that particular offender's conduct. In short, a sentence with a denunciatory element represents a symbolic, collective statement that the offender's conduct should be punished for encroaching on our society's basic code of values as enshrined within our substantive criminal law."

The principles of denunciation and deterrence can sometimes be satisfied without incarceration. One of these circumstances is where the publicity of the case provides for public humiliation.

Deterrence - 718(b)

Section 718(b) sets out the objectives of "deter[ing] the offender and other persons from committing offences" We refer to these as the twin objectives of "general deterrence" and "specific deterrence".

The objective of general deterrence as a factor will normally result in the offender being “punished more severely, not because he or she deserves it, but because the court decides to send a message to others who may be inclined to engage in similar criminal activity.”

When general deterrence is emphasized, the deterrent effect of incarceration can be somewhat speculative and so should be used with great restraint. A lengthy sentence is not the only way of achieving the objective of general deterrence.

Separation from Society - 718(c)

Where a person with mental illness poses a risk to the public the court may need to resort to separating the offender from society, rather than focus on treatment.

Treatment in the community is generally preferred over incarceration. However, this is less so for serious offences.

Rehabilitation - s.718(d)

Section 718(d) sets out the objective of "assist[ing] in rehabilitating offenders". Rehabilitation can be seen to achieve the objective of protecting the public as it assists in preventing further offences. In certain cases, where there is a realistic possibility of rehabilitation, the courts may opt not to impose a jail sentence where it would otherwise be appropriate.

Effective rehabilitation has been seen by some courts as requiring an acceptance of responsibility, likely by way of a guilty plea, and an understanding of the harm done.

An offender's "positive potential for rehabilitation" should be to the benefit of the accused on sentence.

Principles of Sentencing

Fundamental Principle: Proportionality

No matter what the balance between objectives, the sentence must always satisfy the fundamental principle of sentencing under s. 718.1.

Fundamental principle
718.1 A sentence must be proportionate to the gravity of the offence and the degree of responsibility of the offender.

– CCC

Where the sentence is not proportionate it is not just. Thus, it is central to the sentencing process.

The sentence must be no greater than the offenders moral culpability. However, the “severity of sanction for a crime should reflect the...seriousness of the criminal conduct.” And when the sentence is not adequate to address the seriousness of the offence then it is not proportionate.

From this, it is well established that sentencing is a highly discretionary endeavour. Each sentence is to be custom tailored to match the particular offender.

Based on the purposes and principles set out in 718 and 718.2, sentencing is a highly individualized process that takes into account the offence, as well as the offender.

There is no "one size fits all" penalties.

Sentencing is “an inherently individualized process.”

It is also a "profoundly subjective process."

Gravity of an offence can be measured in part by the lasting emotional effects of the offence upon the victim.

When crafting a sentence for multiple offences, proportionality can be achieved either "by imposing concurrent sentences" or "by applying the totality principle to consecutive sentences".

Aggravating and Mitigating Factors

See also Canadian Criminal Sentencing/Factors of Sentencing

Section 718.2 is a non-exhaustive list of secondary principles in sentencing.

Other objectives and principles are listed at s. 718.2 of the Criminal Code:

Other sentencing principles
718.2 A court that imposes a sentence shall also take into consideration the following principles:

(a) a sentence should be increased or reduced to account for any relevant aggravating or mitigating circumstances relating to the offence or the offender, and, without limiting the generality of the foregoing,

(i) evidence that the offence was motivated by bias, prejudice or hate based on race, national or ethnic origin, language, colour, religion, sex, age, mental or physical disability, sexual orientation, or any other similar factor,

(ii) evidence that the offender, in committing the offence, abused the offender’s spouse or common-law partner,

(ii.1) evidence that the offender, in committing the offence, abused a person under the age of eighteen years,

(iii) evidence that the offender, in committing the offence, abused a position of trust or authority in relation to the victim,

(iv) evidence that the offence was committed for the benefit of, at the direction of or in association with a criminal organization, or

(v) evidence that the offence was a terrorism offence

shall be deemed to be aggravating circumstances;

...

– CCC

Take note that certain offences have their own additional factors to consider that are found throughout the code. For example, fraud offences under s. 380.1.

Other Principles

718.2

...

(b) a sentence should be similar to sentences imposed on similar offenders for similar offences committed in similar circumstances;

(c) where consecutive sentences are imposed, the combined sentence should not be unduly long or harsh;

(d) an offender should not be deprived of liberty, if less restrictive sanctions may be appropriate in the circumstances; and

(e) all available sanctions other than imprisonment that are reasonable in the circumstances should be considered for all offenders, with particular attention to the circumstances of aboriginal offenders.

– CCC

Judges are not permitted to apply their own personal belief or views that are contrary to the principles of sentencing.

Totality - s.718.2(c)

See Canadian Criminal Sentencing/Purpose and Principles of Sentencing/Totality Principle

Parity (s.718.2(b))

The parity principle means that a sentence should be "similar to sentences imposed on similar offenders for similar offences committed in similar circumstances".

A judge has a responsibility to "impose sentences in line with precedent, noting always that for each offence and each offender some elements are unique."

To fulfil this requirement sentencing judges must consider the range of sentences of "similar offenders for similar offences committed in similar circumstances".

The principle ensures fairness between similarly situated cases. It does not however override the individualized approach to sentencing.

One of the goals of the provincial courts of appeal is to maintain parity in sentence and minimize the differences in sentencing approaches. However, the judges must also be sensitive to the needs of local community.

Parity to Co-Accused

In a situation of co-accused, the roles of the parties will be considered as well as their personal circumstances.

The principle of parity does not require equal sentences for participants in the same offence. Rather, they must "only [be] understandable sentences when examined together."

Where accomplices who commit the crime at the orders of a principal and agree to testify against he principal can be afforded lesser sentences than the principal.

Restraint - s. 718.2(d),(e)

For first time offenders, the principle of restraint "requires that the sentencing judge consider all sanctions apart from incarceration" and where necessary ensure the term be as "short as possible and tailored to the circumstances of the accused".

The principle also requires the judge to consider rehabilitation in setting the length of the sentence.

"General deterrence cannot be the sole consideration. Appropriate consideration must be given to the rehabilitation of the offender."

Restraint not only means that prison should be a sanction of last resort, but also means that the court should "seek the least intrusive sentence and the least quantum which will achieve the overall purpose of being an appropriate and just sanction."

Where other dispositions have been tried and failed, and jail has not previously been imposed, the imposition of a "short, sharp" sentence can be appropriate, particularly where the offence is related to property and not violence.

Aboriginal Offenders - s. 718.2(e)

See Canadian Criminal Sentencing/Aboriginal Principles and Factors

Step-up Principle

The "step-up" principle is where an offender is convicted of a similar or identical offence to one he's been convicted and sentenced in the past for, it can be concluded that the prior sentence was not sufficiently deterrent and so the sentence for the new offence should be increased to focus on specific deterrence.

Jump Principle

The "jump" principle stated that subsequent sentences passed should not be disproportionate to the prior offence (ie. a "jump" in sentence). A subsequent offence should have an incremental increase proportionate to frequency of the repeated offences. In other words a dramatic increase in sentence due to a recent prior similar record would violate this rule. However, this rule does not apply where the index offence is greatly more serious than the prior offences.

The jump principle is of "less utility" when dealing with an accused "with a lengthy criminal record on multiple convictions".

A jump would be inconsistent with rehabilitation where that is a significant factor in sentence.

Gap Principle

The "gap principle" directs courts to take into consideration the gaps of time between offences. It gives credit to someone who has made an effort to avoid criminal charges.

"Starting Points" on Sentence

A "starting point" for sentences are set as guides and are factors to consider the appropriate sentence. They are meant to achieve greater uniformity and consistency. They are "most useful in circumstances where there is a large disparity between sentences imposed".

A starting point of sentence will be raised and lowered after considering the aggravating and mitigating factors on sentence.

A starting point cannot be artificially lowered by examination into prior case law that shows lower sentences than the designated "starting point" and deem it to be the "correct" starting point.

A judge would does not mention starting points in sentence where one exists is not committing an error in principle.

Ranges on Sentence

A range of sentence is not all sentences between the minimum and maximum for the offence charged. Rather, it is narrowed by the specific offence and offender. The variations of punishment when weighing aggravating and mitigating factors creates the continuum of the range.

Ranges "are guidelines rather than hard and fast rules". A range of sentence can be deviated as long as it is "in accordance with the principles and objectives of sentencing" and are not necessarily unfit. However, factors such as a “good record” and remorse do not amount to exceptional circumstances to deviate from the accepted range.

Effect of Election on Sentence

A sentence is not scaled based on the election made. Thus, an offence prosecuted summarily should not be scaled to less than the maximum only because it would not have been a maximum sentence by indictment.

Sentences for breach of court orders is a gradual process without a sudden, substantial increase in penalty.

Purpose and Principles of Specific Types of Offences

• Canadian Criminal Sentencing/Offences/Drug Offences
• Canadian Criminal Sentencing/Offences/Sexual Offences

Factors of Sentencing

Introduction

The process of determining the appropriate sentence includes the enumerating of aggravating and mitigating factors of the offence and offender. The three broad categories of factors to consider consist of personal circumstances, circumstances of the offence, and circumstances of the proceedings.

As discussed in the Chapter on Purpose and Principles of Sentencing, section 718.2(a) provides that "a sentence should be increased or reduced to account for any relevant aggravating or mitigating circumstances relating to the offence or the offender".

Personal circumstances

Criminal Record

A criminal record will be an aggravating factor.

A criminal record can show that the offender is a "scofflaw" or is not rehabilitated or "learned from past mistakes".

A criminal record can only be considered where the offender had one at the time of the index offence (this is known as the Coke Rule).

However, when a judge sentences for a convicted offence, the judge may take into consideration other criminal acts, and in a limited fashion, such as offences admitted in an agreed statement facts or pending charges.

This is largely codified in s. 725:

Other offences
725. (1) In determining the sentence, a court

(a) shall consider, if it is possible and appropriate to do so, any other offences of which the offender was found guilty by the same court, and shall determine the sentence to be imposed for each of those offences;

(b) shall consider, if the Attorney General and the offender consent, any outstanding charges against the offender to which the offender consents to plead guilty and pleads guilty, if the court has jurisdiction to try those charges, and shall determine the sentence to be imposed for each charge unless the court is of the opinion that a separate prosecution for the other offence is necessary in the public interest;

(b.1) shall consider any outstanding charges against the offender, unless the court is of the opinion that a separate prosecution for one or more of the other offences is necessary in the public interest, subject to the following conditions:

(i) the Attorney General and the offender consent,

(ii) the court has jurisdiction to try each charge,

(iii) each charge has been described in open court,

(iv) the offender has agreed with the facts asserted in the description of each charge, and

(v) the offender has acknowledged having committed the offence described in each charge; and

(c) may consider any facts forming part of the circumstances of the offence that could constitute the basis for a separate charge.

Attorney General’s consent
(1.1) For the purpose of paragraphs (1)(b) and (b.1), the Attorney General shall take the public interest into account before consenting.

No further proceedings
(2) The court shall, on the information or indictment, note

(a) any outstanding charges considered in determining the sentence under paragraph (1)(b.1), and

(b) any facts considered in determining the sentence under paragraph (1)(c),

and no further proceedings may be taken with respect to any offence described in those charges or disclosed by those facts unless the conviction for the offence of which the offender has been found guilty is set aside or quashed on appeal.

R.S., 1985, c. C-46, s. 725; R.S., 1985, c. 27 (1st Supp.), s. 158, c. 1 (4th Supp.), s. 18(F); 1995, c. 22, s. 6; 1999, c. 5, s. 31.

– CCC

An offence committed while on parole is an aggravating factor. By contrast the added consequences of parole revocation should not be mitigating.

Age

Age is relevant to sentencing as a mitigating factor. A youthful person is seen as having a greater chance of reforming and maturing over time. The courts in certain cases recognize young adults as sometimes foolish, inexperienced, and immature. This diminishes their level of responsibility and moral blameworthiness.

Likewise, the principle of restraint is a prominent factor for young offenders.

Effect on Employment and Status

Loss of professional or social status is not generally a mitigating factor nor is the ability to do a particular job well a mitigating factor.

However, it has been said that the "ruin and humiliation" brought upon the accused and his family as well as the loss of professional status can provide denunciation and deterrence.

Degree of remorse and attitude

Remorse is a mitigating factor. Remorse is demonstrated by the acceptance of responsibility through word or action as well as demonstrated insight into the offender's actions. A lack of remorse, however, does not make for an aggravating factor, but simply does not allow for the mitigating effect of remorse.

The courts should have "restraint...for persons who spontaneously acknowledge their culpability, have genuine remorse and seek voluntarily to make reparations."

A lack of remorse or acceptance of responsibility generally cannot be taken as an aggravating factor, but rather can only be taken as an absence of mitigating factors. </ref> Only in exceptional circumstances can the lack of remorse be taken as aggravating.

Addiction and Substance Abuse

Substance abuse, by itself, is not ordinarily a mitigating factor. Nor is a history of addiction a mitigating factor to sentence. However, it can suggest a lower level of moral culpability and otherwise good character but for the addiction. It is also helpful for the court to know about to determine whether rehabilitation is a possibility when crafting an appropriate sentence.

Gambling addiction is not generally a mitigating factor.

Mental Health

Mental health can be a mitigating factor to sentence even where it is not so severe to remove criminal responsibility. Mental disorders, such as schizophrenia, can be a mitigating factor even when there is no a direct causal connection between the offence and the illness. This is also true where the offender was not suffering from delusions at the time. It is sufficient that the illness contributed in some way to the offence. However, the offender's mental health condition is not a factor in sentencing where there is no connection at all between the offence and the condition.

Treatment in the community is generally preferred over incarceration. However, this is less so for serious offences.

However, at times mental illness will be considered an aggravating factor that will increase sentence where it is necessary to protect the public from a dangerous persons who has committed a dangerous offence. Mental illness reduces the importance of denunciation and deterrence and increases the importance of treatment. This includes situations where rehabilitation or cure is impossible.

Mental illness is often considered a basis to order treatment and supervision over punishment.

A mental illness diminishes the offender’s degree of responsibility.

It will also attenuate the relative importance of deterrence and denunciation.

An Offenders mental illness can make a jail sentence more severe.

Diminished intellectual capacity however is not a mitigating factor.

The cognitive deficit from Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD) result in limited restraints as well as appreciation of the immorality of their actions. This reduces the impact on deterrence and denunciation and increases the mitigation on sentence.

Sympathy and compassion

The court may allow for a degree of leniency for sympathetic or compassionate offenders. This will occasionally be done where the accused can show that his "health is so precarious" that the offender may not survive if they are incarcerated. However, simply poor health or age is not usually a reason on its own.

It is not however a factor to consider the risk of harm to an individual while in custody.

Effect on Immigration

Section 64 of the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act states:

64(1) No appeal for inadmissibility
No appeal may be made to the Immigration Appeal Division by a foreign national or their sponsor or by a permanent resident if the foreign national or permanent resident has been found to be inadmissible on grounds of security, violating human or international rights, serious criminality or organized criminality.

64(2) Serious criminality
For the purpose of subsection (1), serious criminality must be with respect to a crime that was punished in Canada by a term of imprisonment of at least six months or that is described in paragraph 36(1)(b) or (c).

– [40]

The risk of deportation can be a factor to consider sentencing. It must be weighed and considered with all other factors and circumstances of the case. However, it should not bring the sentence out of the appropriate range.

The impact on the ability to get a VISA to places like the US may influence the court to consider an absolute discharge over a conditional discharge due to the treatment of probation to immigration.

The effect of an offender's immigration status on the likelihood of day parole is not a factor in sentence.

Aboriginal background

See Canadian Criminal Sentencing/Aboriginal Principles and Factors

Circumstances of the Offence

Age of the Offence

Most often seen in the context of historical sexual assault offences, the “antiquity of the offence is not usually a mitigating feature” However, “the offender may be entitled to a somewhat reduced sentence if he has led an exemplary life during the intervening years and demonstrates genuine remorse. Such circumstances would obviate the need for individual deterrence and time for rehabilitation.”

Breach of Trust

Where there is a breach of the public's trust it will be treated as aggravating beyond private breach of trust.

Victim Under 18

Section 718.01 requires that "[w]hen a court imposes a sentence for an offence that involved the abuse of a person under the age of eighteen years, it shall give primary consideration to the objectives of denunciation and deterrence of such conduct."

In relation to s.718.01, the Alberta Court of Appeal has stated that it "has always been the position of this court in dealing with crimes against defenseless children that a strong response was warranted".

Public abhorrence of type of crime

The public's abhorrence of the type of crime is a factor that enhances the penalties in sentence. Through the principle of denunciation, the courts have an obligation to express the abhorrence of the public of a particular offence such a offences of violence.

State Misconduct

A sentence may “be reduced in light of state misconduct even when the incidents complained of do not rise to the level of a Charter breach.”

Police Misconduct

Police misconduct during an investigation can play a factor in sentencing. This includes having a mitigating factor where an accused's Charter rights have been breached.

However, conduct amounting to basic violation of a procedural right under the charter will not usually result in a reduction where the breach does not invoke s. 24(1) of the Charter.

In exceptional cases, the charges may be stayed.

Use of Force by Peace Officers

Protection of persons acting under authority
25. (1) Every one who is required or authorized by law to do anything in the administration or enforcement of the law

(a) as a private person,

(b) as a peace officer or public officer,

(c) in aid of a peace officer or public officer, or

(d) by virtue of his office,

is, if he acts on reasonable grounds, justified in doing what he is required or authorized to do and in using as much force as is necessary for that purpose.

Idem
(2) Where a person is required or authorized by law to execute a process or to carry out a sentence, that person or any person who assists him is, if that person acts in good faith, justified in executing the process or in carrying out the sentence notwithstanding that the process or sentence is defective or that it was issued or imposed without jurisdiction or in excess of jurisdiction.

When not protected
(3) Subject to subsections (4) and (5), a person is not justified for the purposes of subsection (1) in using force that is intended or is likely to cause death or grievous bodily harm unless the person believes on reasonable grounds that it is necessary for the self-preservation of the person or the preservation of any one under that person’s protection from death or grievous bodily harm.

When protected
(4) A peace officer, and every person lawfully assisting the peace officer, is justified in using force that is intended or is likely to cause death or grievous bodily harm to a person to be arrested, if

(a) the peace officer is proceeding lawfully to arrest, with or without warrant, the person to be arrested;

(b) the offence for which the person is to be arrested is one for which that person may be arrested without warrant;

(c) the person to be arrested takes flight to avoid arrest;

(d) the peace officer or other person using the force believes on reasonable grounds that the force is necessary for the purpose of protecting the peace officer, the person lawfully assisting the peace officer or any other person from imminent or future death or grievous bodily harm; and

(e) the flight cannot be prevented by reasonable means in a less violent manner.

R.S., 1985, c. C-46, s. 25; 1994, c. 12, s. 1.

– [41]

Where a peace officer uses force that is not covered by s.25, a possible violation of the accused’s section 7 Charter rights arises.

There is a violation of the “security of the person” in the context of a criminal prosecution where there is “state interference with bodily integrity and serious state-imposed psychological stress”

Peace officers are expected to use force to effect an arrest or prevent flight from custody. This power is constrained by proportionality, necessity, and reasonableness.

Use of force under s.25(3) is determined on a subjective and objective basis.

Police should not be judged on a standard of perfection. It should be expected that they will be reacting quickly in emergency situations.

R. v. Markowska, 2004 ONCJ 332 -- police executed search warrant of massage parlour with weapons drawn. court found this to be egregious and unjustified.

Uncharged Criminal Conduct

Offenders are only sentenced “in respect of crimes for which they have been specifically charged and of which they have been validly convicted.”

Prior uncharged conduct cannot be used as an aggravating factor, however, can be relevant to sentencing as it shows character and background.

However, under section 725(1)(d), "In determining the sentence, a court ... (c) may consider any facts forming part of the circumstances of the offence that could constitute the basis for a separate charge."

An offender cannot be punished for unproven acts.

Circumstances of the Proceedings

Guilty Plea

A guilty plea is a mitigating factor in a number of respects. It is evidence of remorse , it saves the justice system resources, and it excuses victims from the stress of having to testify. The offender is not entitled to a sentence reduction simply for pleading guilty but rather it is within the discretion of the judge to account for a guilty plea in sentencing.

A lack of guilty plea is not an aggravating factor. However, related to a lack of a guilty plea, if the accused was convicted after trial where testimony of the accused was determined to be false, the judge may consider that as aggravating.

The amount of credit given for a guilty plea it not fixed as it can mitigate in several different ways. It has been suggested however that it can often lead to a reduction of sentence by one-third.

Bail conditions

Strict bail conditions are not treated as equivalent to pre-trial detention, and so remand credit is not applicable for strict bail conditions. The court may consider the bail conditions that the offender up to the date of sentencing. If the individual was under house arrest conditions for bail, this may be accounted as a reason to reduce the sentence as the house arrest may have a punitive element to it. This is a discretionary, however, and will usually needed to be justified by showing that the offender's circumstances were particularly tough beyond the average person.

Restrictive bail conditions should be treated flexibly. The amount of credit, if any, is in the discretion of the trial judge to determine.

In Ontario, the following guidelines were suggested in R v Downes 2006 CanLII 3957 (ONCA):

• Time spent on stringent pre-sentence bail conditions, especially house arrest, is a relevant mitigating factor.
• As such, the trial judge must consider the time spent on bail under house arrest in determining the length of sentence.
• The failure of the trial judge to explain why time spent on bail under house arrest has not been taken into account is an error in principle.
• The amount of credit to be given for time spent on bail under house arrest is within the discretion of the trial judge and there is no formula that the judge is required to apply.
• The amount of credit will depend upon a number of factors including, the length of time spent on bail under house arrest; the stringency of the conditions; the impact on the offender’s liberty; the ability of the offender to carry on normal relationships, employment and activity.
• Where the offender asks the trial judge to take pre-sentence bail conditions into account, the offender should supply the judge with information as to the impact of the conditions. If there is a dispute as to the impact of the conditions, the onus is on the offender to establish those facts on a balance of probabilities in accordance with s. 724(3) of the Criminal Code.

Delay

Delay between the date of the offence and sentence is not reason for mitigation. If the delay is due to flight of the accused from the jurisdiction he is not entitled to any benefit from the passage of time.

Dated offences, such as historical sexual assault, do not warrant a significant reduction on penalty simply due to the time that has passed since the offence as the magnitude of the offence and degree of culpability remains the same.

On serious offences, the passage of time between the offence and sentence does not reduce the need for denunciation or deterrence.

Other factors in delay to consider include:

1. the effect of delay on sentencing is a case‑specific inquiry
2. deliberate acts to evade detection by the authorities, whether flight or contribution to delayed complaint tend to weigh against assigning mitigating impact to the fact of delay
3. reform and rehabilitation during the intervening period tend to eliminate the prospect of recidivism and to nullify the need for specific deterrence to be reflected in the court's disposition
4. certain very serious crimes require sentences with measures of general deterrence and denunciation regardless of the offender's lengthy crime‑free existence subsequent to the crime(s)
5. objectively speaking, taking into account delay, the court's disposition should not be seen as a reward or benefit eliminating or depreciating the concept of proportionate punishment.

Pre-trial custody

719.

...

Determination of sentence

(3) In determining the sentence to be imposed on a person convicted of an offence, a court may take into account any time spent in custody by the person as a result of the offence but the court shall limit any credit for that time to a maximum of one day for each day spent in custody.

(3.1) Despite subsection (3), if the circumstances justify it, the maximum is one and one-half days for each day spent in custody unless the reason for detaining the person in custody was stated in the record under subsection 515(9.1) or the person was detained in custody under subsection 524(4) or (8).

Reasons

(3.2) The court shall give reasons for any credit granted and shall cause those reasons to be stated in the record.

– CCC

Section 719(3.1) consists of amendments from 2010 where the practice of giving 2:1 credits was significantly limited. Certain judges have given 1.5:1 credit where warranted for loss of remission.

The judge cannot deny pre-trial custody credit to a sentence simply because of the nature his record.

II.1 - Available Sentences

This book is a reference for practitioners, police officers, and law students who need a convenient way to look up legislation, principles, and case law. The reader is assumed to already have a knowledge of criminal law.

There is no guarantee whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or currency of the information provided in this or any other companion text. Nothing here should be taken as legal advice.

For recent developments on these series of books see News on Canadian Criminal Law series.

CAUTION: this wikibook ceased active development in 2012. A more up-to-date branch of this text can be found at http://criminalnotebook.ca. 

Contents

• Introduction

Principles and Factors

• Purpose and Principles of Sentencing
  • Totality
  • Aboriginal Offenders
• Factors of Sentencing

Tools of Sentencing

• Available Sentences
  • Discharges
  • Suspended Sentences and Probation
  • Fines
  • Restitution
  • Imprisonment
  • Concurrent and Consecutive Sentences
  • Maximum and Minimum Sentences
• Ancillary Orders
  • Weapons Prohibition Orders
  • DNA Orders
  • SOIRA Orders
  • Driving Prohibition Orders
  • Forfeiture Orders
    • Proceeds of Crime
    • Offence-related Property
    • Offence-related Property Under the Controlled Drugs Substances Act
    • Detention and Forfeiture Under Section 490

Procedure

• Procedure
  • Overview of Sentencing
  • Guilty Plea
  • Notice of Increased Penalty
  • Evidence
  • Pre-Sentence Report
  • Victim Impact Statement
  • Plea Bargain
  • Sentencing Circles

Sentencing by Offences

• Offences
  • Weapons Offences
  • Sexual Offences
  • Offences of Violence
  • Homicide
  • Disorderly Conduct
  • Gambling and Gaming
  • Hate Speech and Libel
  • Administration of Justice Offences
  • Motor Vehicle Offences
  • Property Offences
  • Drug Offences

Serving Sentences and Afterwards

• Parole
• Long-term and Dangerous Offender Designation
• Criminal Records

Young Offenders

• Young Offenders

Appendix

• Case Digests
• Checklist
• Offence Charts

Please add {{alphabetical}} only to book title pages.

Available Sentences/Alternative Measures

This book is a reference for practitioners, police officers, and law students who need a convenient way to look up legislation, principles, and case law. The reader is assumed to already have a knowledge of criminal law.

There is no guarantee whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or currency of the information provided in this or any other companion text. Nothing here should be taken as legal advice.

For recent developments on these series of books see News on Canadian Criminal Law series.

CAUTION: this wikibook ceased active development in 2012. A more up-to-date branch of this text can be found at http://criminalnotebook.ca. 

Contents

• Introduction

Principles and Factors

• Purpose and Principles of Sentencing
  • Totality
  • Aboriginal Offenders
• Factors of Sentencing

Tools of Sentencing

• Available Sentences
  • Discharges
  • Suspended Sentences and Probation
  • Fines
  • Restitution
  • Imprisonment
  • Concurrent and Consecutive Sentences
  • Maximum and Minimum Sentences
• Ancillary Orders
  • Weapons Prohibition Orders
  • DNA Orders
  • SOIRA Orders
  • Driving Prohibition Orders
  • Forfeiture Orders
    • Proceeds of Crime
    • Offence-related Property
    • Offence-related Property Under the Controlled Drugs Substances Act
    • Detention and Forfeiture Under Section 490

Procedure

• Procedure
  • Overview of Sentencing
  • Guilty Plea
  • Notice of Increased Penalty
  • Evidence
  • Pre-Sentence Report
  • Victim Impact Statement
  • Plea Bargain
  • Sentencing Circles

Sentencing by Offences

• Offences
  • Weapons Offences
  • Sexual Offences
  • Offences of Violence
  • Homicide
  • Disorderly Conduct
  • Gambling and Gaming
  • Hate Speech and Libel
  • Administration of Justice Offences
  • Motor Vehicle Offences
  • Property Offences
  • Drug Offences

Serving Sentences and Afterwards

• Parole
• Long-term and Dangerous Offender Designation
• Criminal Records

Young Offenders

• Young Offenders

Appendix

• Case Digests
• Checklist
• Offence Charts

Please add {{alphabetical}} only to book title pages.

Available Sentences/Discharges

Legislation

The Criminal Codes describes the discharge as:

730. (1) Where an accused, other than an organization, pleads guilty to or is found guilty of an offence, other than an offence for which a minimum punishment is prescribed by law or an offence punishable by imprisonment for fourteen years or for life, the court before which the accused appears may, if it considers it to be in the best interests of the accused and not contrary to the public interest, instead of convicting the accused, by order direct that the accused be discharged absolutely or on the conditions prescribed in a probation order made under subsection 731(2).

Period for which appearance notice, etc., continues in force
(2) Subject to Part XVI, where an accused who has not been taken into custody or who has been released from custody under or by virtue of any provision of Part XVI pleads guilty of or is found guilty of an offence but is not convicted, the appearance notice, promise to appear, summons, undertaking or recognizance issued to or given or entered into by the accused continues in force, subject to its terms, until a disposition in respect of the accused is made under subsection (1) unless, at the time the accused pleads guilty or is found guilty, the court, judge or justice orders that the accused be taken into custody pending such a disposition.

Effect of discharge
(3) Where a court directs under subsection (1) that an offender be discharged of an offence, the offender shall be deemed not to have been convicted of the offence except that

(a) the offender may appeal from the determination of guilt as if it were a conviction in respect of the offence;

(b) the Attorney General and, in the case of summary conviction proceedings, the informant or the informant’s agent may appeal from the decision of the court not to convict the offender of the offence as if that decision were a judgment or verdict of acquittal of the offence or a dismissal of the information against the offender; and

(c) the offender may plead autrefois convict in respect of any subsequent charge relating to the offence.

Where person bound by probation order convicted of offence
(4) Where an offender who is bound by the conditions of a probation order made at a time when the offender was directed to be discharged under this section is convicted of an offence, including an offence under section 733.1, the court that made the probation order may, in addition to or in lieu of exercising its authority under subsection 732.2(5), at any time when it may take action under that subsection, revoke the discharge, convict the offender of the offence to which the discharge relates and impose any sentence that could have been imposed if the offender had been convicted at the time of discharge, and no appeal lies from a conviction under this subsection where an appeal was taken from the order directing that the offender be discharged.

R.S., 1985, c. C-46, s. 730; 1995, c. 22, s. 6; 1997, c. 18, s. 141; 2003, c. 21, s. 17.

– CCC

Effect

The discharge is not a conviction but rather the offence is discharged absolutely or conditionally with probation. In cannot be paired with a fine or jail. The end result is that there is no criminal record. No record may be disclosed to any person by a federal agency, except for the purpose of verifying fingerprints, without the consent of the Solicitor General after 1 year for a absolute discharge or 3 years for a conditional discharge.

Requirements

An offence punishable by less than 14 years and without minimum sentence, the offender may apply to the court for a "conditional discharge" if it is in the "best interests of the accused" and "not contrary to the public interest".

Best interests of offender

Generally speaking the effect of the criminal record would be disproportionate to the offence, such as where the offender cannot pursue their chosen profession, education would be affected, etc. The reason for discharge cannot be mere speculation.

The first factor of a discharge presupposes that the offender is of good character and so is without a prior criminal record.

It is generally preferred or sometimes necessary that the court have evidence of the consequence of a criminal record volunteer activities to support a discharge application.

Not contrary to public interest

A discharge does not have to be in the public interest, it simply must not be contrary to the public interest.

The second factor considers:

• the gravity of the offence;
• the frequency/prevalence of the offence in the community
• the public attitudes to the offence
• amount of planning of the offence
• value of property (if property-related offence)
• whether there was personal gain from the offence
• the effect on the public confidence in the law

Where applied

Cases for a variety of offences have been considered:

• possession of a weapon for a dangerous purpose (s.88)
• break and enter
• possession of marijuana (4(1))
• theft under $5,000

Factors such as the accused's immigration status are valid considerations but are not determinative.

It is not prohibited to grant a discharge where a prior discharge has already been granted. Nor is it prohibited to grant a discharge where a prior record exists. Nevertheless the granting of a discharge in these cases is exceptional.

Absolute vs Conditional

An absolute discharge order discharges the offence without any additional requirements of probation. It is usually granted in the cases of lesser seriousness of offences or where the personal circumstances are exceptional.

Offences of violence

Without a prior record, a Court will grant a discharge for common assault. However, it should only be given in extraordinary circumstances. Assault causing bodily harm can be available for discharges in only limited circumstances.

Curative Discharge

The curative discharge is a sub-category of the discharge in relation to motor-vehicle offences.

s. 255(5) Notwithstanding subsection 730(1), a court may, instead of convicting a person of an offence committed under section 253, after hearing medical or other evidence, if it considers that the person is in need of curative treatment in relation to his consumption of alcohol or drugs and that it would not be contrary to the public interest, by order direct that the person be discharged under section 730 on the conditions prescribed in a probation order, including a condition respecting the person’s attendance for curative treatment in relation to that consumption of alcohol or drugs.

This provision has not been proclaimed in BC, Ontario, Quebec, Newfoundland.

For a discharge to be granted, the following must be present:

1. Court must hear evidence of a medical or similar nature;
2. court must be of the opinion that the client is in need of curative treatment in relation to alcohol or drug use;
3. court must be of an opinion that the discharge would not be contrary to the public interest.

Factors to consider on the issue of public interest include:

• good faith of the accused
• past criminal record
• presence of a driving prohibition at the time
• whether there was a previous discharge given

Other factors considered:

• the necessary program is available
• the program is likely to be successful
• the accused is motivated to overcome alcoholism

Curative discharges are not appropriate where the charge occurred while the offender was subject to a previous treatment discharge.

Available Sentences/Probation

General Principles

“[P]robation is regarded as a rehabilitative sentencing tool...It is not considered punitive in nature.”

Terms of Probation

Compulsory terms

Compulsory terms of probation are listed at s. 732.1 (2):

a) keep the peace and be of good behaviour;

b) abstain from communicating, directly or indirectly, with any victim, witness or other person identified in the order, or refrain from going to any place specified in the order, except in accordance with the conditions specified in the order that the court considers necessary, unless

(i) the victim, witness or other person gives their consent or, if the victim, witness or other person is a minor, the parent or guardian, or any other person who has the lawful care or charge of them, gives their consent, or

(ii) the court decides that, because of exceptional circumstances, it is not appropriate to impose the condition;

c) appear before the court when required to do so by the court; and

d) notify the court or the probation officer in advance of any change of name or address, and promptly notify the court or the probation officer of any change of employment or occupation.

– CCC

Optional terms

Optional terms of probation are listed at s. 732.1 (3):

(a) report to a probation officer

(i) within two working days, or such longer period as the court directs, after the making of the probation order, and

(ii) thereafter, when required by the probation officer and in the manner directed by the probation officer;

(b) remain within the jurisdiction of the court unless written permission to go outside that jurisdiction is obtained from the court or the probation officer;

(c) abstain from

(i) the consumption of alcohol or other intoxicating substances, or

(ii) the consumption of drugs except in accordance with a medical prescription;

(d) abstain from owning, possessing or carrying a weapon;

(e) provide for the support or care of dependants;

(f) perform up to 240 hours of community service over a period not exceeding eighteen months;

(g) if the offender agrees, and subject to the program director’s acceptance of the offender, participate actively in a treatment program approved by the province;

(g.1) where the lieutenant governor in council of the province in which the probation order is made has established a program for curative treatment in relation to the consumption of alcohol or drugs, attend at a treatment facility, designated by the lieutenant governor in council of the province, for assessment and curative treatment in relation to the consumption by the offender of alcohol or drugs that is recommended pursuant to the program;

(g.2) where the lieutenant governor in council of the province in which the probation order is made has established a program governing the use of an alcohol ignition interlock device by an offender and if the offender agrees to participate in the program, comply with the program; and

(h) comply with such other reasonable conditions as the court considers desirable, subject to any regulations made under subsection 738(2), for protecting society and for facilitating the offender’s successful reintegration into the community.

– CCC

The primary goal of these conditions is rehabilitation and reintegration. Punishment is not a dominant purpose.

These goals concern the future behaviour of the offender, and are not shaped by the seriousness of the offence or degree of culpability.

In order to impose optional terms, it must be established that the conditions are reasonable desirable for "protecting society and facilitating the offender's successful reintegration into the community".

The conditions do not require a connection between the offence and the offender's past history.

The offender's inability to comply with the condition does not make it unreasonable. However, setting offenders up for future breaches should be of concern.

A court cannot order the offender as part of probation to submit to "a search and seizure of bodily substances". Moreover, the court cannot "predetermine that any positive reading would constitute a breach of probation".

Community Service
The judge may impose a requirement to complete up to 250 hours of community service under s.732.1(3)(f) and (h). It must be completed within 1 year.

Sexual Behaviour Assessment
Certain jurisdictions have services through the local hospital that include sexual behaviour assessment. This typically includes phallometric testing. The assessment is intended to assist with risk assessment, determine whether there should be a s.161 order, and what treatment if any can be required.

The assessment will either be included as part of a probationary order or else as part of an order for a pre-sentence report prior to sentencing.

When Probation can be Ordered

A period of probation cannot be greater than three years.

Probation can be attached to any jail sentence equal or less than 2 years. The length of sentence is considered going forward from the date of sentence and not the global sentence before subtracting remand credit.

Probation should not be imposed where it is impractical to make use of probation.

Suspending of Sentence

Under s. 731(1)(a), court may order that the sentence be suspended and the offender be placed on a period of probation:

Making of probation order
731. (1) Where a person is convicted of an offence, a court may, having regard to the age and character of the offender, the nature of the offence and the circumstances surrounding its commission,

(a) if no minimum punishment is prescribed by law, suspend the passing of sentence and direct that the offender be released on the conditions prescribed in a probation order;...

R.S., 1985, c. C-46, s. 731; 1992, c. 1, s. 58, c. 20, s. 200; 1995, c. 22, s. 6; 1997, c. 17, s. 1.

– CCC

Available Sentences/Fines

General Principles

Fines are a form of financial punishment available as a sentencing option for a judge. A fine is available where the court believes that the accused is "able to pay" the fine and where a pecuniary punishment is considered proportionate to the offence and offender. This focus on ability to pay, found in s. 734(2), prevents "offenders from being fined amounts that they are truly unable to pay, and to correspondingly reduce the number of offenders who are incarcerated in default of payment."

The burden is upon the party seeking the fine to prove that the offender has the ability to pay on a balance of probabilities. The party does not need to identify or locate the specific assets available, rather "may rely on indirect evidence" to prove an ability to pay.

Absent evidence to the contrary, the court may infer an ability to pay where the offender has been in "receipt of illegally-obtained funds". This must take into account the "amount of funds acquired" and "the length of time that has passed between the acquisition of the funds and the imposition of sentence."

To issue a fine a judge must order:

1. an amount to be paid
2. the mode of payment
3. the time(s) that the fine should be paid

The judge may add further requirements as seen fit.

If the offender fails to pay, it is on the offender to show proof that they are unable to pay in the circumstances.

Available Sentences/Restitution

General Principles

Sections 738 to 741.2 deal with Restitution to victim of crime.

Restitution is intended to rehabilitate the offender by making him immediately responsible for the loss of the victim. It also gives the victim a speedy means of getting money back.

Restitution can be ordered to require the offender to pay a sum of money to compensate a party for a proven loss. Restitution is ordered as either a term of a probation order or else as a stand alone restitution order. A stand alone restitution order has no time limit for repayment and may be registered as a civil judgement which in turn could be used to garnish wages and seize property.

Whether to grant restitution is considered as part of the "totality" of the punishment. Typically, the offender should have some ability to pay the amount, either at sentencing or in the future. The court must take into consideration the offender's ability to pay. However, where the offence is particularly egregious, such as a breach of trust, a restitution order may be made even where there does not appear to be any likelihood of repayment.

Objectives and factors for the discretionary ordering restitution are as follows::

1. An order for compensation should be made with restraint and caution;
2. The concept of compensation is essential to the sentencing process:
   1. it emphasizes the sanction imposed upon the offender;
   2. it makes the accused responsible for making restitution to the victim;
   3. it prevents the accused from profiting from crime; and
   4. it provides a convenient, rapid and inexpensive means of recovery for the victim;
3. A sentencing judge should consider;
   1. the purpose of the aggrieved person in invoking s. 725(1);
   2. whether civil proceedings have been initiated and are being pursued; and
   3. the means of the offender.
4. A compensation order should not be used as a substitute for civil proceedings. Parliament did not intend that compensation orders would displace the civil remedies necessary to ensure full compensation to victims.
5. It should not be ordered when the amount is unclear.
6. A compensation order is not the appropriate mechanism to unravel involved commercial transactions;
7. A compensation order should not be granted when it would require the criminal court to interpret written documents to determine the amount of money sought through the order. The loss should be capable of ready calculation.
8. A compensation order should not be granted if the effect of provincial legislation would have to be considered in order to determine what order should be made;
9. Any serious contest on legal or factual issues should signal a denial of recourse to an order;
10. Double recovery can be prevented by the jurisdiction of the civil courts to require proper accounting of all sums recovered; and
11. A compensation order may be appropriate where a related civil judgment has been rendered unenforceable as a result of bankruptcy.

No single factor should be determinative on whether restitution should be ordered.

The purpose of the order is to be part of the sentence, not to compensate for losses.

Under section 380.3(1), when a person is convicted of fraud, the court is specifically required to inquire into whether restitution is being sought from the victim's involved. If the judge decides not to order restitution he must under s. 380.3(5), give reasons for the decision.

Available Sentences/Imprisonment

General Principles

A judge has the power to impose a sentence of imprisonment under the authority of s. 718.3 and 787:

Degrees of punishment
718.3 (1) Where an enactment prescribes different degrees or kinds of punishment in respect of an offence, the punishment to be imposed is, subject to the limitations prescribed in the enactment, in the discretion of the court that convicts a person who commits the offence.
Discretion respecting punishment
(2) Where an enactment prescribes a punishment in respect of an offence, the punishment to be imposed is, subject to the limitations prescribed in the enactment, in the discretion of the court that convicts a person who commits the offence, but no punishment is a minimum punishment unless it is declared to be a minimum punishment.
...
1995, c. 22, s. 6; 1997, c. 18, s. 141; 2002, c. 1, s. 182.
...
General penalty
787. (1) Unless otherwise provided by law, everyone who is convicted of an offence punishable on summary conviction is liable to a fine of not more than five thousand dollars or to a term of imprisonment not exceeding six months or to both.

– CCC

Intermittent Sentence

Intermittent sentence
732. (1) Where the court imposes a sentence of imprisonment of ninety days or less on an offender convicted of an offence, whether in default of payment of a fine or otherwise, the court may, having regard to the age and character of the offender, the nature of the offence and the circumstances surrounding its commission, and the availability of appropriate accommodation to ensure compliance with the sentence, order

(a) that the sentence be served intermittently at such times as are specified in the order; and

(b) that the offender comply with the conditions prescribed in a probation order when not in confinement during the period that the sentence is being served and, if the court so orders, on release from prison after completing the intermittent sentence.

Application to vary intermittent sentence
(2) An offender who is ordered to serve a sentence of imprisonment intermittently may, on giving notice to the prosecutor, apply to the court that imposed the sentence to allow it to be served on consecutive days.

Court may vary intermittent sentence if subsequent offence

(3) Where a court imposes a sentence of imprisonment on a person who is subject to an intermittent sentence in respect of another offence, the unexpired portion of the intermittent sentence shall be served on consecutive days unless the court otherwise orders.

– CCC

Intermittent sentences cannot exceed 90 days. This includes consecutive sentences totaling more than 90 days.

Intermittent sentences "strike a legislative balance between the denunciatory and deterrent functions of 'real jail time' and the rehabilitative functions of preserving the offender's employment, family relationships and responsibilities, and obligations to the community."

A court has no authority to vary a sentence from an intermittent sentence to a non-intermittent sentence a once it has been ordered.

There is some suggestion that the court has some jurisdiction to vary the entry and exit time of a conditional sentence.

Available Sentences/Conditional Sentences

This book is a reference for practitioners, police officers, and law students who need a convenient way to look up legislation, principles, and case law. The reader is assumed to already have a knowledge of criminal law.

There is no guarantee whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or currency of the information provided in this or any other companion text. Nothing here should be taken as legal advice.

For recent developments on these series of books see News on Canadian Criminal Law series.

CAUTION: this wikibook ceased active development in 2012. A more up-to-date branch of this text can be found at http://criminalnotebook.ca. 

Contents

• Introduction

Principles and Factors

• Purpose and Principles of Sentencing
  • Totality
  • Aboriginal Offenders
• Factors of Sentencing

Tools of Sentencing

• Available Sentences
  • Discharges
  • Suspended Sentences and Probation
  • Fines
  • Restitution
  • Imprisonment
  • Concurrent and Consecutive Sentences
  • Maximum and Minimum Sentences
• Ancillary Orders
  • Weapons Prohibition Orders
  • DNA Orders
  • SOIRA Orders
  • Driving Prohibition Orders
  • Forfeiture Orders
    • Proceeds of Crime
    • Offence-related Property
    • Offence-related Property Under the Controlled Drugs Substances Act
    • Detention and Forfeiture Under Section 490

Procedure

• Procedure
  • Overview of Sentencing
  • Guilty Plea
  • Notice of Increased Penalty
  • Evidence
  • Pre-Sentence Report
  • Victim Impact Statement
  • Plea Bargain
  • Sentencing Circles

Sentencing by Offences

• Offences
  • Weapons Offences
  • Sexual Offences
  • Offences of Violence
  • Homicide
  • Disorderly Conduct
  • Gambling and Gaming
  • Hate Speech and Libel
  • Administration of Justice Offences
  • Motor Vehicle Offences
  • Property Offences
  • Drug Offences

Serving Sentences and Afterwards

• Parole
• Long-term and Dangerous Offender Designation
• Criminal Records

Young Offenders

• Young Offenders

Appendix

• Case Digests
• Checklist
• Offence Charts

Please add {{alphabetical}} only to book title pages.

Available Sentences/Concurrent and Consecutive Sentences

General Principles

Cumulative punishments are known as consecutive sentences. This only applies to jail sentences, all other sentences run concurrently.

All sentences are presumed to be served concurrently. The Code provides for cumulative punishments at section 718.3:

718.3

...

Cumulative punishments
(4) The court or youth justice court that sentences an accused may direct that the terms of imprisonment that are imposed by the court or the youth justice court or that result from the operation of subsection 734(4) or 743.5(1) or (2) shall be served consecutively, when

(a) the accused is sentenced while under sentence for an offence, and a term of imprisonment, whether in default of payment of a fine or otherwise, is imposed;

(b) the accused is found guilty or convicted of an offence punishable with both a fine and imprisonment and both are imposed;

(c) the accused is found guilty or convicted of more than one offence, and

(i) more than one fine is imposed,

(ii) terms of imprisonment for the respective offences are imposed, or

(iii) a term of imprisonment is imposed in respect of one offence and a fine is imposed in respect of another offence; or

(d) subsection 743.5(1) or (2) applies.

1995, c. 22, s. 6; 1997, c. 18, s. 141; 2002, c. 1, s. 182.

– CCC

Generally, sentences for offences that occur at separate occasions will be served consecutively. While where the offences arise out of the same transaction, the sentences will be typically concurrent. If the court does not indicate whether sentences are concurrent or consecutive it is presumed concurrent.

Nevertheless, the decision of consecutive sentences is one entitled to deference.

Sentences may be imposed consecutively in relation to a single transaction where the punishments protect "different societal interests" or "different legal interests". A judge should consider the time frame within which the offences occurred, the similarity of the offences, whether a new intent or impulse initiated each of the offences and whether the total sentence is fit and proper under the circumstances.

When deciding whether a sentence should be consecutive or concurrent, the court should consider 1) the time frame of the offences, 2) the similarity of the offences, 3) whether a new intent broached each offence, and 4) whether the total sentence is fit and proper.

Certain sentences must be ordered to be served consecutively:

1. Commission of indictable offence to advantage a terrorist group (s. 83.2 and s. 83.26)
2. Instructing activity for terrorist group (s. 83.21(1) and s. 83.26)
3. Instructing terrorist activity (s. 83.22(1) and s. 83.26)
4. Instructing commission of offence for criminal organization (s. 467.13(1) and s. 467.14)

The decision on whether a sentence should be concurrent or consecutive "should be treated with the same deference owed by appellate courts to sentencing judges concerning the length of sentences ordered."

Available Sentences/Maximum and Minimum Sentences

This book is a reference for practitioners, police officers, and law students who need a convenient way to look up legislation, principles, and case law. The reader is assumed to already have a knowledge of criminal law.

There is no guarantee whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or currency of the information provided in this or any other companion text. Nothing here should be taken as legal advice.

For recent developments on these series of books see News on Canadian Criminal Law series.

CAUTION: this wikibook ceased active development in 2012. A more up-to-date branch of this text can be found at http://criminalnotebook.ca. 

Contents

• Introduction

Principles and Factors

• Purpose and Principles of Sentencing
  • Totality
  • Aboriginal Offenders
• Factors of Sentencing

Tools of Sentencing

• Available Sentences
  • Discharges
  • Suspended Sentences and Probation
  • Fines
  • Restitution
  • Imprisonment
  • Concurrent and Consecutive Sentences
  • Maximum and Minimum Sentences
• Ancillary Orders
  • Weapons Prohibition Orders
  • DNA Orders
  • SOIRA Orders
  • Driving Prohibition Orders
  • Forfeiture Orders
    • Proceeds of Crime
    • Offence-related Property
    • Offence-related Property Under the Controlled Drugs Substances Act
    • Detention and Forfeiture Under Section 490

Procedure

• Procedure
  • Overview of Sentencing
  • Guilty Plea
  • Notice of Increased Penalty
  • Evidence
  • Pre-Sentence Report
  • Victim Impact Statement
  • Plea Bargain
  • Sentencing Circles

Sentencing by Offences

• Offences
  • Weapons Offences
  • Sexual Offences
  • Offences of Violence
  • Homicide
  • Disorderly Conduct
  • Gambling and Gaming
  • Hate Speech and Libel
  • Administration of Justice Offences
  • Motor Vehicle Offences
  • Property Offences
  • Drug Offences

Serving Sentences and Afterwards

• Parole
• Long-term and Dangerous Offender Designation
• Criminal Records

Young Offenders

• Young Offenders

Appendix

• Case Digests
• Checklist
• Offence Charts

Please add {{alphabetical}} only to book title pages.

II.2 - Ancillary Orders

This book is a reference for practitioners, police officers, and law students who need a convenient way to look up legislation, principles, and case law. The reader is assumed to already have a knowledge of criminal law.

There is no guarantee whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or currency of the information provided in this or any other companion text. Nothing here should be taken as legal advice.

For recent developments on these series of books see News on Canadian Criminal Law series.

CAUTION: this wikibook ceased active development in 2012. A more up-to-date branch of this text can be found at http://criminalnotebook.ca. 

Contents

• Introduction

Principles and Factors

• Purpose and Principles of Sentencing
  • Totality
  • Aboriginal Offenders
• Factors of Sentencing

Tools of Sentencing

• Available Sentences
  • Discharges
  • Suspended Sentences and Probation
  • Fines
  • Restitution
  • Imprisonment
  • Concurrent and Consecutive Sentences
  • Maximum and Minimum Sentences
• Ancillary Orders
  • Weapons Prohibition Orders
  • DNA Orders
  • SOIRA Orders
  • Driving Prohibition Orders
  • Forfeiture Orders
    • Proceeds of Crime
    • Offence-related Property
    • Offence-related Property Under the Controlled Drugs Substances Act
    • Detention and Forfeiture Under Section 490

Procedure

• Procedure
  • Overview of Sentencing
  • Guilty Plea
  • Notice of Increased Penalty
  • Evidence
  • Pre-Sentence Report
  • Victim Impact Statement
  • Plea Bargain
  • Sentencing Circles

Sentencing by Offences

• Offences
  • Weapons Offences
  • Sexual Offences
  • Offences of Violence
  • Homicide
  • Disorderly Conduct
  • Gambling and Gaming
  • Hate Speech and Libel
  • Administration of Justice Offences
  • Motor Vehicle Offences
  • Property Offences
  • Drug Offences

Serving Sentences and Afterwards

• Parole
• Long-term and Dangerous Offender Designation
• Criminal Records

Young Offenders

• Young Offenders

Appendix

• Case Digests
• Checklist
• Offence Charts

Please add {{alphabetical}} only to book title pages.

Ancillary Orders/Weapons Prohibition Orders

Legislation

Mandatory prohibition order
109. (1) Where a person is convicted, or discharged under section 730, of

(a) an indictable offence in the commission of which violence against a person was used, threatened or attempted and for which the person may be sentenced to imprisonment for ten years or more,

(b) an offence under subsection 85(1) (using firearm in commission of offence), subsection 85(2) (using imitation firearm in commission of offence), 95(1) (possession of prohibited or restricted firearm with ammunition), 99(1) (weapons trafficking), 100(1) (possession for purpose of weapons trafficking), 102(1) (making automatic firearm), 103(1) (importing or exporting knowing it is unauthorized) or section 264 (criminal harassment),

(c) an offence relating to the contravention of subsection 5(1) or (2), 6(1) or (2) or 7(1) of the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act, or

(d) an offence that involves, or the subject-matter of which is, a firearm, a cross-bow, a prohibited weapon, a restricted weapon, a prohibited device, any ammunition, any prohibited ammunition or an explosive substance and, at the time of the offence, the person was prohibited by any order made under this Act or any other Act of Parliament from possessing any such thing,

the court that sentences the person or directs that the person be discharged, as the case may be, shall, in addition to any other punishment that may be imposed for that offence or any other condition prescribed in the order of discharge, make an order prohibiting the person from possessing any firearm, cross-bow, prohibited weapon, restricted weapon, prohibited device, ammunition, prohibited ammunition and explosive substance during the period specified in the order as determined in accordance with subsection (2) or (3), as the case may be.

Duration of prohibition order — first offence
(2) An order made under subsection (1) shall, in the case of a first conviction for or discharge from the offence to which the order relates, prohibit the person from possessing

(a) any firearm, other than a prohibited firearm or restricted firearm, and any crossbow, restricted weapon, ammunition and explosive substance during the period that

(i) begins on the day on which the order is made, and

(ii) ends not earlier than ten years after the person’s release from imprisonment after conviction for the offence or, if the person is not then imprisoned or subject to imprisonment, after the person’s conviction for or discharge from the offence; and

(b) any prohibited firearm, restricted firearm, prohibited weapon, prohibited device and prohibited ammunition for life.

Duration of prohibition order — subsequent offences
(3) An order made under subsection (1) shall, in any case other than a case described in subsection (2), prohibit the person from possessing any firearm, cross-bow, restricted weapon, ammunition and explosive substance for life.

...

Discretionary prohibition order
110. (1) Where a person is convicted, or discharged under section 730, of

(a) an offence, other than an offence referred to in any of paragraphs 109(1)(a), (b) and (c), in the commission of which violence against a person was used, threatened or attempted, or

(b) an offence that involves, or the subject-matter of which is, a firearm, a cross-bow, a prohibited weapon, a restricted weapon, a prohibited device, ammunition, prohibited ammunition or an explosive substance and, at the time of the offence, the person was not prohibited by any order made under this Act or any other Act of Parliament from possessing any such thing,

the court that sentences the person or directs that the person be discharged, as the case may be, shall, in addition to any other punishment that may be imposed for that offence or any other condition prescribed in the order of discharge, consider whether it is desirable, in the interests of the safety of the person or of any other person, to make an order prohibiting the person from possessing any firearm, cross-bow, prohibited weapon, restricted weapon, prohibited device, ammunition, prohibited ammunition or explosive substance, or all such things, and where the court decides that it is so desirable, the court shall so order.

...

Duration of prohibition order
(2) An order made under subsection (1) against a person begins on the day on which the order is made and ends not later than ten years after the person’s release from imprisonment after conviction for the offence to which the order relates or, if the person is not then imprisoned or subject to imprisonment, after the person’s conviction for or discharge from the offence.

– [42]

Mandatory 109 Order

The 109 Order applies where at least one of the elements of s. 109(1)(a),(b),(c), or (d) applies.

The order is mandatory under s. 109(1)(a) where the offence is:

• indictable;
• involved violence (used, threatened or attempted) and
• offence has maximum penalty of 10 years or more.

The order is mandatory under s. 109(1)(b) where the offence is:

• criminal harassment (s.264); or
• a weapon offence under s.85(1) or (2), 95(1), 99(1), 100(1), 102(1), 103(1)

The order is mandatory under s. 109(1)(c) where it involves certain drug offences under the CDSA (s.5(1) or (2), s. 6(1) or (2), s. 7(1))

The order is mandatory under s. 109(1)(d) where the offence:

• involves a firearm, crossbow, prohibited weapon, restricted weapon, prohibited device, ammunition, or explosive substance, and
• the offender was prohibited from possessing such items at the time of the offence

The first time that a s.109 Order is granted for an accused there is a requirement of a minimum of 10 year prohibitoin for firearms, crossbows, restricted weapons, ammo and explosives as well as a lifetime prohibition for prohibited firearms, restricted firearms, prohibited weapons, prohibited devices and prohibited ammunition.

All subsequent 109 orders must be a minimum prohibition of life for all items listed.

Section 109(1)(c) was found not to violate s. 12 of the Charter for Cruel and Unusual punishment for a production of cannabis conviction.

Discretionary 110 Order

The order is discretionary under s.110(1)(a) where the offence involves violence (used, threatened or attempted).

The order is also discretionary under s. 110(1)(b) where:

• the offence involves a firearm, crossbow, prohibited weapon, restricted weapon, prohibited device, ammunition, or explosive substance, and
• the offender was not prohibited from possessing such items at the time of the offence

To make the order under s. 110, the order must be in the interests of the safety of the accused and other members of the public. Should the judge decline a request for an order under s.110, the judge must give reasons for declining.

A order under s. 110 will impose a maximum of 10 years prohibiting the possession of firearms, crossbows, restricted weapons, ammunition, or explosives, prohibited weapons, prohibited devices, and prohibited ammunition. This does not include prohibited firearms or restricted firearms.

Variations

Section 113 has been found to provide the court with authority to apply to modify a weapons prohibition.

Ancillary Orders/DNA Orders

DNA Orders

DNA Orders are court orders permitting certain law enforcement persons to take bodily substance samples for the purpose of adding a record of the offender's DNA to the national database. A DNA order can be made by a sentencing judge where the offence being sentenced is either a "primary designated offence", for which it is mandatory, or a "secondary designated offence", for which it is discretionary.

Primary Designated Offences

Order — primary designated offences
487.051 (1) The court shall make an order in Form 5.03 authorizing the taking of the number of samples of bodily substances that is reasonably required for the purpose of forensic DNA analysis from a person who is convicted, discharged under section 730 or found guilty under the Youth Criminal Justice Act or the Young Offenders Act, of an offence committed at any time, including before June 30, 2000, if that offence is a primary designated offence within the meaning of paragraph (a) of the definition “primary designated offence” in section 487.04 when the person is sentenced or discharged.

Order — primary designated offences
(2) The court shall make such an order in Form 5.03 in relation to a person who is convicted, discharged under section 730 or found guilty under the Youth Criminal Justice Act or the Young Offenders Act, of an offence committed at any time, including before June 30, 2000, if that offence is a primary designated offence within the meaning of any of paragraphs (a.1) to (d) of the definition “primary designated offence” in section 487.04 when the person is sentenced or discharged. However, the court is not required to make the order if it is satisfied that the person has established that the impact of such an order on their privacy and security of the person would be grossly disproportionate to the public interest in the protection of society and the proper administration of justice, to be achieved through the early detection, arrest and conviction of offenders.

1998, c. 37, s. 17; 2002, c. 1, s. 176; 2005, c. 25, s. 3; 2007, c. 22, ss. 9, 47.

– CCC

Under s. 487.04, a "primary designated offence" is defined as:

SECTION (a) offence in relation to sexual offences against children, sexual interference, invitation to sexual touching, sexual exploitation, sexual exploitation of person with disability, incest, compelling the commission of bestiality, bestiality in presence of or by a child, child pornography, parent or guardian procuring sexual activity, luring a child by means of a computer system, exposure, stupefying or overpowering for the purpose of sexual intercourse, living on the avails of prostitution of a person under age of 18, aggravated offence in relation to living on the avails of prostitution of a person under age of 18, obtaining prostitution of person under age of 18, murder, manslaughter, attempt to commit murder, discharging firearm with intent, causing bodily harm with intent — air gun or pistol, discharging firearm — recklessness, administering noxious thing with intent to endanger life or cause bodily harm, overcoming resistance to commission of offence, assault with a weapon or causing bodily harm, aggravated assault, unlawfully causing bodily harm, assaulting peace officer with weapon or causing bodily harm, aggravated assault of peace officer, sexual assault, sexual assault with a weapon, threats to a third party or causing bodily harm, aggravated sexual assault, removal of a child from Canada, kidnapping, robbery, and extortion

SECTION (a.1) piratical acts, hijacking, endangering safety of aircraft or airport, seizing control of ship or fixed platform, using explosives, participation in activity of terrorist group, facilitating terrorist activity, commission of offence for terrorist group, instructing to carry out activity for terrorist group, instructing to carry out terrorist activity, harbouring or concealing, procuring, infanticide, trafficking in persons, trafficking of a person under the age of eighteen years, hostage taking, breaking and entering a dwelling-house, intimidation of a justice system participant or journalist, attack on premises, residence or transport of internationally protected person, attack on premises, accommodation or transport of United Nations or associated personnel, explosive or other lethal device, participation in activities of criminal organization, commission of offence for criminal organization, and instructing commission of offence for criminal organization

SECTION (b) Criminal Code, chapter C-34 of the Revised Statutes of Canada, 1970, as they read from time to time before January 4, 1983: rape, attempt to commit rape, sexual intercourse with female under fourteen and between fourteen and sixteen, sexual intercourse with feeble-minded, etc., indecent assault on female, indecent assault on male, acts of gross indecency, and assault with intent if the intent is to commit an offence referred to in subparagraphs (i) to (vi) SECTION (c) Criminal Code, chapter C-34 of the Revised Statutes of Canada, 1970, as they read from time to time before January 1, 1988: sexual intercourse with a female under age of 14, sexual intercourse with a female between ages of 14 and 16, sexual intercourse with step-daughter, gross indecency, parent or guardian procuring defilement, and householder permitting defilement SECTION (c.01) Criminal Code, chapter C-34 of the Revised Statutes of Canada, 1970, as [amended by] chapter 125 of the Statutes of Canada, 1980-81-82-83: sexual assault, sexual assault with a weapon, threats to a third party or causing bodily harm, and aggravated sexual assault] SECTION (c.1) Security of Information Act: approaching, entering, etc., a prohibited place, threats or violence, harbouring or concealing SECTION (d) an attempt to commit or, other than for the purposes of subsection 487.05(1), a conspiracy to commit an offence referred to in any of paragraphs (a) to (c.01)

The sample will only be refused where "the impact of the order on the offender's privacy and security of the person [is] grossly disproportionate to the public interest in the protection of society and the proper administration of justice to be achieved through the early detection, arrest and conviction of offenders"

Factors to be considered include "the nature of the offence, the nature of the intrusion and the circumstances of the individual who will be the subject of the intrusion."

Secondary designated offences

Distinct from "primary designated offences" are the "secondary designated offences" which is defined as:

s. 487.051

...

Order — persons found not criminally responsible and secondary designated offences
(3) The court may, on application by the prosecutor and if it is satisfied that it is in the best interests of the administration of justice to do so, make such an order in Form 5.04 in relation to

(a) a person who is found not criminally responsible on account of mental disorder for an offence committed at any time, including before June 30, 2000, if that offence is a designated offence when the finding is made; or

(b) a person who is convicted, discharged under section 730 or found guilty under the Youth Criminal Justice Act or the Young Offenders Act, of an offence committed at any time, including before June 30, 2000, if that offence is a secondary designated offence when the person is sentenced or discharged.

In deciding whether to make the order, the court shall consider the person’s criminal record, whether they were previously found not criminally responsible on account of mental disorder for a designated offence, the nature of the offence, the circumstances surrounding its commission and the impact such an order would have on the person’s privacy and security of the person and shall give reasons for its decision.

– [43]

Offences that are classified as "secondary designated offences" consist of:

(a) an offence under this Act that may be prosecuted by indictment — or, for section 487.051 to apply, is prosecuted by indictment — for which the maximum punishment is imprisonment for five years or more...

(b) an offence under any of the following provisions of the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act that may be prosecuted by indictment — or, for section 487.051 to apply, is prosecuted by indictment — for which the maximum punishment is imprisonment for five years or more:

[listing the following offences: trafficking in substance and possession for purpose of trafficking, importing and exporting, and production of substance]

(c) an offence under any of the following provisions of this Act... [listing the following offences:escape and being at large without excuse, permitting or assisting escape, rescue or permitting escape, assisting prisoner of war to escape, indecent acts, failure to stop at scene of accident, criminal harassment, uttering threats, assault, assaulting a peace officer, breaking and entering a place other than a dwelling-house, being unlawfully in dwelling-house, and intimidation]...

(d) an offence under any of the following provisions of the Criminal Code, as they read from time to time before July 1, 1990: [listing arson, setting fire to other substance]

(e) an attempt to commit or, other than for the purposes of subsection 487.05(1), a conspiracy to commit

(i) an offence referred to in paragraph (a) or (b) — which, for section 487.051 to apply, is prosecuted by indictment, or

(ii) an offence referred to in paragraph (c) or (d);

– CCC

Under s. 487.051(3)(b), DNA orders can only be granted for secondary offences where the prosecution applies and where the court is “satisfied that it is in the best interests of the administration of justice to do so, make [a DNA order] … in relation to…(b) a person who is convicted…of an offence…if that offence is a secondary designated offence when the person is sentenced or discharged.”

Due to the wording of the provision, the court has no authority to seek a DNA order for a secondary offence where the crown is not seeking one.

List of Secondary Designated Offences

• Possession of a Forged Passport (57)
• Taking Explosives or Weapons on Board a Plane (78)
• Breach of Duty of Care Regarding Explosives Causing Bodily Harm or Death (80)
• Possession of a Weapon for a Dangerous Purpose (88)
• Carrying a Concealed Weapon (90)
• Unauthorized Possession of a Firearm (91)
• Possession of a Firearm Knowing Possession is Unauthorized (92)
• Possession of a Restricted or Prohibited Firearm with Ammo (95)
• Weapons Trafficking (99)
• Possession of a Weapon for Purpose of Trafficking (100)
• Perjury (131)
• Contradictory Evidence with Intent to Mislead (136)
• Fabricating Evidence (137)
• Obstructing Justice (139(2))
• Public Mischief (140)
• Prison Breach (144)
• Bestiality (160)
• Impaired Driving and Driving While Over 80 (253)
• Refusal to Provide a Breath or Blood Sample (254)

NB: This list is not complete

Taking of Samples

487.056

...

Collection of samples
(5) A peace officer who is authorized under section 487.051, 487.055 or 487.091 to take samples of bodily substances may cause the samples to be taken in any place in Canada in which the person who is subject to the order or authorization is located.

Who collects samples
(6) The samples shall be taken by a peace officer who has jurisdiction over the person or in the place in which the samples are taken — or a person acting under their direction — who is able, by virtue of training or experience, to take them.

1998, c. 37, s. 17; 2000, c. 10, s. 16; 2002, c. 1, s. 179(E); 2005, c. 25, s. 6; 2007, c. 22, s. 13.

Report of peace officer
487.057 (1) A peace officer who takes samples of bodily substances from a person or who causes a person who is not a peace officer to take samples under their direction shall, as soon as feasible after the samples are taken, make a written report in Form 5.07 and cause the report to be filed with

(a) the provincial court judge who issued the warrant under section 487.05 or granted the authorization under section 487.055 or 487.091 or another judge of that provincial court; or

(b) the court that made the order under section 487.051.

Contents of report
(2) The report shall include

(a) a statement of the time and date the samples were taken; and

(b) a description of the bodily substances that were taken.

Copy of report
(3) A peace officer who takes the samples or causes the samples to be taken under their direction at the request of another peace officer shall send a copy of the report to the other peace officer unless that other peace officer had jurisdiction to take the samples.

1998, c. 37, s. 17; 2000, c. 10, s. 17; 2007, c. 22, s. 14.

– CCC

Ancillary Orders/SOIRA Orders

This book is a reference for practitioners, police officers, and law students who need a convenient way to look up legislation, principles, and case law. The reader is assumed to already have a knowledge of criminal law.

There is no guarantee whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or currency of the information provided in this or any other companion text. Nothing here should be taken as legal advice.

For recent developments on these series of books see News on Canadian Criminal Law series.

CAUTION: this wikibook ceased active development in 2012. A more up-to-date branch of this text can be found at http://criminalnotebook.ca. 

Contents

• Introduction

Principles and Factors

• Purpose and Principles of Sentencing
  • Totality
  • Aboriginal Offenders
• Factors of Sentencing

Tools of Sentencing

• Available Sentences
  • Discharges
  • Suspended Sentences and Probation
  • Fines
  • Restitution
  • Imprisonment
  • Concurrent and Consecutive Sentences
  • Maximum and Minimum Sentences
• Ancillary Orders
  • Weapons Prohibition Orders
  • DNA Orders
  • SOIRA Orders
  • Driving Prohibition Orders
  • Forfeiture Orders
    • Proceeds of Crime
    • Offence-related Property
    • Offence-related Property Under the Controlled Drugs Substances Act
    • Detention and Forfeiture Under Section 490

Procedure

• Procedure
  • Overview of Sentencing
  • Guilty Plea
  • Notice of Increased Penalty
  • Evidence
  • Pre-Sentence Report
  • Victim Impact Statement
  • Plea Bargain
  • Sentencing Circles

Sentencing by Offences

• Offences
  • Weapons Offences
  • Sexual Offences
  • Offences of Violence
  • Homicide
  • Disorderly Conduct
  • Gambling and Gaming
  • Hate Speech and Libel
  • Administration of Justice Offences
  • Motor Vehicle Offences
  • Property Offences
  • Drug Offences

Serving Sentences and Afterwards

• Parole
• Long-term and Dangerous Offender Designation
• Criminal Records

Young Offenders

• Young Offenders

Appendix

• Case Digests
• Checklist
• Offence Charts

Please add {{alphabetical}} only to book title pages.

Ancillary Orders/Section 161 Orders

This book is a reference for practitioners, police officers, and law students who need a convenient way to look up legislation, principles, and case law. The reader is assumed to already have a knowledge of criminal law.

There is no guarantee whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or currency of the information provided in this or any other companion text. Nothing here should be taken as legal advice.

For recent developments on these series of books see News on Canadian Criminal Law series.

CAUTION: this wikibook ceased active development in 2012. A more up-to-date branch of this text can be found at http://criminalnotebook.ca. 

Contents

• Introduction

Principles and Factors

• Purpose and Principles of Sentencing
  • Totality
  • Aboriginal Offenders
• Factors of Sentencing

Tools of Sentencing

• Available Sentences
  • Discharges
  • Suspended Sentences and Probation
  • Fines
  • Restitution
  • Imprisonment
  • Concurrent and Consecutive Sentences
  • Maximum and Minimum Sentences
• Ancillary Orders
  • Weapons Prohibition Orders
  • DNA Orders
  • SOIRA Orders
  • Driving Prohibition Orders
  • Forfeiture Orders
    • Proceeds of Crime
    • Offence-related Property
    • Offence-related Property Under the Controlled Drugs Substances Act
    • Detention and Forfeiture Under Section 490

Procedure

• Procedure
  • Overview of Sentencing
  • Guilty Plea
  • Notice of Increased Penalty
  • Evidence
  • Pre-Sentence Report
  • Victim Impact Statement
  • Plea Bargain
  • Sentencing Circles

Sentencing by Offences

• Offences
  • Weapons Offences
  • Sexual Offences
  • Offences of Violence
  • Homicide
  • Disorderly Conduct
  • Gambling and Gaming
  • Hate Speech and Libel
  • Administration of Justice Offences
  • Motor Vehicle Offences
  • Property Offences
  • Drug Offences

Serving Sentences and Afterwards

• Parole
• Long-term and Dangerous Offender Designation
• Criminal Records

Young Offenders

• Young Offenders

Appendix

• Case Digests
• Checklist
• Offence Charts

Please add {{alphabetical}} only to book title pages.

Ancillary Orders/Driving Prohibition Orders

This book is a reference for practitioners, police officers, and law students who need a convenient way to look up legislation, principles, and case law. The reader is assumed to already have a knowledge of criminal law.

There is no guarantee whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or currency of the information provided in this or any other companion text. Nothing here should be taken as legal advice.

For recent developments on these series of books see News on Canadian Criminal Law series.

CAUTION: this wikibook ceased active development in 2012. A more up-to-date branch of this text can be found at http://criminalnotebook.ca. 

Contents

• Introduction

Principles and Factors

• Purpose and Principles of Sentencing
  • Totality
  • Aboriginal Offenders
• Factors of Sentencing

Tools of Sentencing

• Available Sentences
  • Discharges
  • Suspended Sentences and Probation
  • Fines
  • Restitution
  • Imprisonment
  • Concurrent and Consecutive Sentences
  • Maximum and Minimum Sentences
• Ancillary Orders
  • Weapons Prohibition Orders
  • DNA Orders
  • SOIRA Orders
  • Driving Prohibition Orders
  • Forfeiture Orders
    • Proceeds of Crime
    • Offence-related Property
    • Offence-related Property Under the Controlled Drugs Substances Act
    • Detention and Forfeiture Under Section 490

Procedure

• Procedure
  • Overview of Sentencing
  • Guilty Plea
  • Notice of Increased Penalty
  • Evidence
  • Pre-Sentence Report
  • Victim Impact Statement
  • Plea Bargain
  • Sentencing Circles

Sentencing by Offences

• Offences
  • Weapons Offences
  • Sexual Offences
  • Offences of Violence
  • Homicide
  • Disorderly Conduct
  • Gambling and Gaming
  • Hate Speech and Libel
  • Administration of Justice Offences
  • Motor Vehicle Offences
  • Property Offences
  • Drug Offences

Serving Sentences and Afterwards

• Parole
• Long-term and Dangerous Offender Designation
• Criminal Records

Young Offenders

• Young Offenders

Appendix

• Case Digests
• Checklist
• Offence Charts

Please add {{alphabetical}} only to book title pages.

Forfeiture

This book is a reference for practitioners, police officers, and law students who need a convenient way to look up legislation, principles, and case law. The reader is assumed to already have a knowledge of criminal law.

There is no guarantee whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or currency of the information provided in this or any other companion text. Nothing here should be taken as legal advice.

For recent developments on these series of books see News on Canadian Criminal Law series.

CAUTION: this wikibook ceased active development in 2012. A more up-to-date branch of this text can be found at http://criminalnotebook.ca. 

Contents

• Introduction

Principles and Factors

• Purpose and Principles of Sentencing
  • Totality
  • Aboriginal Offenders
• Factors of Sentencing

Tools of Sentencing

• Available Sentences
  • Discharges
  • Suspended Sentences and Probation
  • Fines
  • Restitution
  • Imprisonment
  • Concurrent and Consecutive Sentences
  • Maximum and Minimum Sentences
• Ancillary Orders
  • Weapons Prohibition Orders
  • DNA Orders
  • SOIRA Orders
  • Driving Prohibition Orders
  • Forfeiture Orders
    • Proceeds of Crime
    • Offence-related Property
    • Offence-related Property Under the Controlled Drugs Substances Act
    • Detention and Forfeiture Under Section 490

Procedure

• Procedure
  • Overview of Sentencing
  • Guilty Plea
  • Notice of Increased Penalty
  • Evidence
  • Pre-Sentence Report
  • Victim Impact Statement
  • Plea Bargain
  • Sentencing Circles

Sentencing by Offences

• Offences
  • Weapons Offences
  • Sexual Offences
  • Offences of Violence
  • Homicide
  • Disorderly Conduct
  • Gambling and Gaming
  • Hate Speech and Libel
  • Administration of Justice Offences
  • Motor Vehicle Offences
  • Property Offences
  • Drug Offences

Serving Sentences and Afterwards

• Parole
• Long-term and Dangerous Offender Designation
• Criminal Records

Young Offenders

• Young Offenders

Appendix

• Case Digests
• Checklist
• Offence Charts

Please add {{alphabetical}} only to book title pages.

III - Procedure

This book is a reference for practitioners, police officers, and law students who need a convenient way to look up legislation, principles, and case law. The reader is assumed to already have a knowledge of criminal law.

There is no guarantee whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or currency of the information provided in this or any other companion text. Nothing here should be taken as legal advice.

For recent developments on these series of books see News on Canadian Criminal Law series.

CAUTION: this wikibook ceased active development in 2012. A more up-to-date branch of this text can be found at http://criminalnotebook.ca. 

Contents

• Introduction

Principles and Factors

• Purpose and Principles of Sentencing
  • Totality
  • Aboriginal Offenders
• Factors of Sentencing

Tools of Sentencing

• Available Sentences
  • Discharges
  • Suspended Sentences and Probation
  • Fines
  • Restitution
  • Imprisonment
  • Concurrent and Consecutive Sentences
  • Maximum and Minimum Sentences
• Ancillary Orders
  • Weapons Prohibition Orders
  • DNA Orders
  • SOIRA Orders
  • Driving Prohibition Orders
  • Forfeiture Orders
    • Proceeds of Crime
    • Offence-related Property
    • Offence-related Property Under the Controlled Drugs Substances Act
    • Detention and Forfeiture Under Section 490

Procedure

• Procedure
  • Overview of Sentencing
  • Guilty Plea
  • Notice of Increased Penalty
  • Evidence
  • Pre-Sentence Report
  • Victim Impact Statement
  • Plea Bargain
  • Sentencing Circles

Sentencing by Offences

• Offences
  • Weapons Offences
  • Sexual Offences
  • Offences of Violence
  • Homicide
  • Disorderly Conduct
  • Gambling and Gaming
  • Hate Speech and Libel
  • Administration of Justice Offences
  • Motor Vehicle Offences
  • Property Offences
  • Drug Offences

Serving Sentences and Afterwards

• Parole
• Long-term and Dangerous Offender Designation
• Criminal Records

Young Offenders

• Young Offenders

Appendix

• Case Digests
• Checklist
• Offence Charts

Please add {{alphabetical}} only to book title pages.

Procedure/Overview of Sentencing

Guilty plea or Conviction

A sentencing hearing is to be commenced "as soon as practicable" after the point where a conviction has been entered.

Submissions of counsel

Both the Crown and Defence are permitted to make submissions to facts for consideration. However, submissions themselves do not constitute evidence.

Accused addressing the Court

At the end of the submissions by counsel, the accused is entitled to make comments to the court. Failure to allow the accused to speak will not invalidate the sentence if it is an inadvertent slip or error.

Judgement on Sentence

A judge, in deciding on a sentence, after hearing the recommendations from both Crown and Defence, may go above the range recommended by Crown counsel, but must do so after giving reasons for the sentence given.

It is also recommended that the judge give counsel an opportunity to make further submissions.

Upon deciding on a particular sentence the judge shall comply with s.570 and 806 requiring him to make a minute or memorandum of conviction and upon request, make a conviction order under Form 35 or 36. Further a warrant of committal, if applicable, will be made under Form 21 or 22.

Guilty Plea

When a Guilty Plea Can be Offered

A guilty plea should not be entered where the accused denies guilt.

If the accused does not remember or recall the incident, the judge may still accept the guilty plea so long as the accused is capable to accept the allegation as correct.

A judge may accept a plea to an included offence only where there is consent of the crown.

Acceptance of a guilty plea

A conviction or finding of guilt is not entered until such time as the court accepts the plea. A plea by itself is not enough.

A plea of guilty can only be accepted by the Court if the requirements of s. 606(1.1) are satisfied. The provision states:

606(1.1) A court may accept a plea of guilty only if it is satisfied that the accused

(a) is making the plea voluntarily; and

(b) understands

(i)that the plea is an admission of the essential elements of the offence,

(ii)the nature and consequences of the plea, and

(iii)that the court is not bound by any agreement made between the accused and the prosecutor.

– [44]

A plea must be taken in the presence of an accused “unless the court orders otherwise”. This would potentially include acceptance of pleas through the use of video links.

For a guilty plea to be valid it must possess the following attributes:

• voluntary,
• unequivocal,
• informed of the nature of the allegations,
• informed of the consequences of a plea

Inquiry into guilty plea

The judge has discretion to inquire into whether the accused meets these criteria.

A judge need not “fully inquire” into whether 606(1.1) is met before accepting a guilty plea.

Where the plea is entered in open court it is presumed valid.

When entered with counsel it is presumed that the accused was "fully familiar with the circumstances surrounding the offence and to have been aware of the consequences of entering a guilty plea. The presumption is stronger where it is done after consulting with experienced counsel.

Procedural Effect of a Guilty Plea

Once a plea has been made it is considered formal proof of the offence committed. There is no burden on the Crown to prove the charge beyond a reasonable doubt. However, a plea is not formal proof of the underlying facts.

A guilty plea is considered the end of the challenge to the criminal charge against the accused. This also means that the guilty plea will extinguish any procedural rights, rights of appeal or ability to challenge the ruling of guilt. There can only be a re-opening of the issue of admissibility of the evidence if the accused was not aware of the effect of the guilty plea.

Where a Charter application fails and there remains no further defence, the proper procedure to preserve the right of appeal is to admit the facts allegecd and invite the judge to convict.

Validity and Withdraw of Guilty Plea

A guilty plea can be withdrawn any time before sentencing at the discretion of the trial judge. Where a withdraw is requested the trial judge is to inquire into the validity of the guilty plea. He may withdraw the plea at their discretion. However, the discretion is reviewable by an appellate court.

Where the accused has already been sentenced and wishes to withdraw the guilty plea, the trial judge is functus and has no jurisdiction to consider an application. An appellate court may only interfere with a guilty plea where the plea resulted in a "miscarriage of justice" under s. 686(1)(a)(iii).

If the plea is valid it generally cannot be withdrawn.

A plea in open court by an accused represented by counsel is presumptively valid. Where the accused is represented by counsel there is a stronger presumption of validity.

The burden is upon the accused to establish the guilty plea as invalid.

An appellate court has the ability to remove a guilty plea and quash a conviction where there are "valid grounds" to do so. What constitutes valid grounds is open-ended and can include a variety of situations.

"Valid grounds" to withdraw a guilty plea can be in situations where the plea was not validly. This includes where there is:

• a misunderstanding by the accused of the nature of the charge
• a misunderstanding by the accused of the effect of his plea, such as where
  • the accused never intended to admit guilt
  • there was a serious question as to the accused's mental state at the time of entering the plea
• improper inducements or threats by the police, defence counsel, or the trial judge
• the accused did not fully appreciate the nature of the charge or the effect of the plea.

A further situation where the plea can be withdrawn is where there is a miscarriage of justice. This includes where:

• the accused has been given wrong legal advice
• if on the admitted facts, he could not be convicted of the offence

Factors to consider include

1. whether the accused was represented by (experienced) counsel
2. whether the accused was apprised of his position
3. did the accused have a valid defence
4. was the plea given while under pressure and did he have enough time to contemplate the decision
5. whether the accused had experience in the criminal justice system (usually shown by a criminal record)

If a judge performs the inquiry under s. 606(1.1) then it is unlikely that a judge should set aside the guilty plea.

A change of plea is rarely granted, first, because of the mischief it could cause and the lack of certainly in plea deals, second, need to ensure fairness to the victims, complainants and witnesses involved.

Representation by counsel is a significant factor.

A co-accused who is acquitted does not change the validity of the guilty plea.

Guilty plea are more likely be struck where there are English language problems.

Where there was no meeting between the lawyer and the accused there will be a tendency to lean towards revoking the guilty plea.

Voluntariness

An accused who feels under pressure to plead guilty is not generally enough to vitiate voluntariness. It is expected that a persons facing serious charges will feel pressure at the time of plea.

Death threats is sufficient to vitiate voluntariness on a guilty plea.

Guilty plea motivated by a desire to avoid tougher sentence will not be grounds of striking the plea. Similarly, it is permissible for crown to suggest that if a guilty plea is entered, bail will not be opposed prior to sentence.

Equivocation

Any conditional guilty plea, such as admission of guilt only where a particular outcome be granted, is not a guilty plea at all.

A guilty plea is considered conditional where the plea was done on advice of the lawyer who was mistaken to believe that an appeal of conviction and ruling would be possible after the plea was entered. It is also conditional where the crown offers to allow a withdraw of a guilty plea if the judge does not adopt the joint recommendation.

A withdraw could be supported where the accused asserts a potential valid defence.

A guilty plea made merely to gain some sort of perceived advantage is not enough to invalidate the plea.

Understands Admissions

The accused must have suffient information regarding the nature of the charges against him.

The accused need only be aware of the “essential facts” to make out the charge and not the full extent of the details to plea guilty. This follows the principle that guilty plea is only a bare admission and not acceptance of all surrounding circumstances.

Where the accused was not aware of what he was pleading guilty to, then it will be struck.

Understand Consequences

The accused has a right to know the immediate consequence of the guilty plea. This includes the nature of the potential penalties. This does not include all possible consequences.

Lack of knowledge of the consequences of pleading guilty is not necessarily determinative. Instead, more seems to rely upon the impact on the decision, if the accused had been informed.

“Consequences” of the plea does not include knowledge of the long-term or external consequences to a guilty plea, including the impact on their immigration status.

The courts can take into account the overall impact of the guilty plea when deciding whether they understood the consequence.

Miscarriage of Justice

Valid grounds include where there is an appearance of unfairness.

Unfairness would include where the accused was pressured or extorted into pleading guilty.

Procedure for Appeal

Proving the invalidity of a guilty plea may be established by the record. However, if it is not apparent from the record, the court must have the appellant file his "own affidavit and any other affidavit that might be relevant to the issue".

If the grounds includes an allegation of misconduct or incompetence of previous defence counsel, the Crown may get an affidavit from the previous defence counsel to respond to the allegations. The previous defence counsel is still bound by solicitor-client privilege unless waived.

Under s. 683, either side may apply to cross-examine the affiant.

Plea to Lesser Offences

A judge can accept a guilty plea to an offence listed in the charge or any other charge arising from the same transaction where the Crown consents. Under s. 606(4), a guilty plea to a lesser included offence in permissible as stated:

s. 606...

Included or other offence
(4) Notwithstanding any other provision of this Act, where an accused or defendant pleads not guilty of the offence charged but guilty of any other offence arising out of the same transaction, whether or not it is an included offence, the court may, with the consent of the prosecutor, accept that plea of guilty and, if the plea is accepted, the court shall find the accused or defendant not guilty of the offence charged and find him guilty of the offence in respect of which the plea of guilty was accepted and enter those findings in the record of the court.

...

R.S., 1985, c. C-46, s. 606; R.S., 1985, c. 27 (1st Supp.), s. 125; 2002, c. 13, s. 49.

– [45]

Even where the crown consents to accepting a guilty plea for a lesser offence, the judge has discretion to reject it.

See also

• Canadian Criminal Procedure and Practice/Cases/Guilty Pleas

Procedure/Notice of Increased Penalty

General Principles

Certain offences mandate higher penalties where there is a prior conviction for the offence. The higher penalty can only be sought where the Crown has given notice of their intention to seek greater punishment.

Offences for which this applies include:

• use firearm (s. 85)
• careless storage of a firearm (86)
• possession firearm (92)
• betting, pool-selling, bookmaking (202)
• placing bets on other’s behalf (203)
• impaired driving and over 80 (253)
• refusal (254)

By failing to give proper notice the Crown cannot rely upon the legislated mandatory minimums. However, a judge may still consider the prior record when sentencing and can impose the mandatory minimum as long as it is in the range of sentence.

Notice

Notice of increased penalty is governed by s. 727(1):

727. (1) Subject to subsections (3) and (4), where an accused or a defendant is convicted of an offence for which a greater punishment may be imposed by reason of previous convictions, no greater punishment shall be imposed on him by reason thereof unless the prosecutor satisfies the court that the accused or defendant, before making his plea, was notified that a greater punishment would be sought by reason thereof.

– CCC

Section 727(1) does not specifically require written notice, thus, both written or verbal notice is sufficient.

There is divided cases on whether the accused must be served personally or whether service on the agent or counsel is sufficient. The dominant opinion however has been that service of notice upon counsel is sufficient to satisfy the requirements of s.727(1) and that personal service is not necessary. In select jurisdictions, such as Saskatchewan, it has been determined that service upon an agent, including a relative, is also sufficient.

It is not sufficient to notify the accused that the Crown “may” be seeking a greater punishment.

It is not necessary to notify the accused of the nature and character of the penalty sought, including the length of the possible jail sentence.

There is no need for “reasonable notice”. So notice can be given on the day of trial.

Notice must be given to the accused of the Crown's intention to seek a greater penalty for past offences.

Although it is generally practiced, it is not necessary to specify the previous convictions being relied upon when giving notice.

There are two lines of cases on the issue of whether the notice is discretionary on the judge to accept. This turns on whether the notice is part of the core prosecutorial duties which are not reviewable by a court absent evidence of abuse of process or bad faith.

Cases is support of the crown discretion view suggests that to do otherwise would create too much second guessing and erode the boundary between the separatoin of powers.

Where the crown does not serve proper notice under s. 727, then the accused cannot be said to have been convicted "of an offence that is punishable by a minimum term of imprisonment" under s.742.1, and so would not disqualify the offender from being subject to a conditional sentence.

Procedure/Evidence

Evidence

The admissibility of evidence is significantly different in a sentencing hearings than in trials. The interests at stake differ in a sentencing as opposed to a trial as the presumption of innocence is gone and there is no longer a concern for a wrongful conviction.

In sentencing, courts should be open to a broad range of information in order to achieve the objectives under the Code.

However, the evidence must still meet the standard of accuracy, credibility and reliability.

The prejudicial effect of the evidence should not outweigh the probative value.

Exclusionary rules of evidence are not applied strictly in sentencing.

Admissibility voir dires, such as for voluntariness, may be held but are not necessary.

In 1996, Part XXIII was amended to create a statutory framework for sentencing hearings.

The law of evidence at sentencing equally applies to dangerous and long term offenders.

Character Evidence
Character evidence is admissible and relevant to sentencing. Character evidence may be excluded where fairness would outweigh the probative value.

Factual findings

Section 723 codifies the common law rules on submission of evidence on sentencing.

Submissions on facts
723. (1) Before determining the sentence, a court shall give the prosecutor and the offender an opportunity to make submissions with respect to any facts relevant to the sentence to be imposed.

Submission of evidence
(2) The court shall hear any relevant evidence presented by the prosecutor or the offender.

Production of evidence
(3) The court may, on its own motion, after hearing argument from the prosecutor and the offender, require the production of evidence that would assist it in determining the appropriate sentence.

Compel appearance
(4) Where it is necessary in the interests of justice, the court may, after consulting the parties, compel the appearance of any person who is a compellable witness to assist the court in determining the appropriate sentence.

...

R.S., 1985, c. C-46, s. 723; 1995, c. 22, s. 6.

...

Information accepted
724. (1) In determining a sentence, a court may accept as proved any information disclosed at the trial or at the sentencing proceedings and any facts agreed on by the prosecutor and the offender.

– CCC

On a guilty plea, a judge may rely on facts that are agreed upon by the parties. The Crown will read the facts alleged as well as submit allegations of prior criminal convictions. The Defence must have an opportunity to deny or consent to the allegations.

In practice, at a minimum the crown should read-in enough facts to make out the essential elements of the offence. Preferably there should also be all admitted facts going to aggravating and mitigating factors.

The judge may rely upon any information placed before him. This includes submissions by Crown and Defence counsel as well as admissible evidence.

A guilty plea is only an admission of the essential elements of the offence.

On sentencing, where facts are not in dispute, the judge may makes inferences from proven or undisputed evidence.

Disputed of facts

R.S., 1985, c. C-46, s. 724; 1995, c. 22, s. 6.

– CCC

Where there is a dispute on facts, the court cannot rely upon the crown's version without supported facts. To settle the conflict the judge must hear evidence to settle the evidence or chose to accept the accused's version "so far as possible". If the difference amounts to a dispute between characterizations, the Defence must call evidence.

Aggravating facts must be proved beyond a reasonable doubt by the crown.

A "Gardiner Hearing" refers to the hearing of oral evidence that is conducted at sentencing where there is a dispute between the parties as to the facts on a guilty plea.

This hearing is conducted according to s. 724(3). It will concern the “extrinsic evidence” that must be proven by the crown.

The Crown does not have to prove voluntariness of statements made by the accused.

Hearsay

Hearsay is admissible in sentencing under s. 723.

s. 723.

...

Hearsay evidence
(5) Hearsay evidence is admissible at sentencing proceedings, but the court may, if the court considers it to be in the interests of justice, compel a person to testify where the person

(a) has personal knowledge of the matter;

(b) is reasonably available; and

(c) is a compellable witness.

R.S., 1985, c. C-46, s. 723; 1995, c. 22, s. 6.

– CCC

As with all evidence at sentencing, it must be credible and reliable.

Documentary evidence, such as reports, records, and assessments, may be admitted for the truth of its contents.

The flexible standard may not apply where the Crown wishes to prove aggravating factors which requires proof beyond a reasonable doubt.

Evidence of Untried Offences

Evidence of untried offences is generally a form of character evidence and may be admissible.

Factors to consider whether untried conduct is admissible to establish character includes the following:

1. the nexus between the evidence and the offence for which the offender was convicted—the closer the connection the more likely the evidence will shed light on the circumstances of the charged offence;
2. the similarity between the evidence and the offence for which the offender was convicted;
3. the difficulty the offender may encounter in properly defending against the allegations in the proposed evidence;
4. the danger that the sentence hearing will be unduly prolonged;
5. the danger that the focus of the sentence hearing will appear to be diverted from the true purpose of imposing a fit sentence for the charged offence that is proportionate to the gravity of the offence and the degree of responsibility of the offender in accordance with s. 718.1;
6. whether, as in Lees, the offender has adduced evidence of good character; and
7. the cogency of the proposed evidence.

Post-Sentence evidence

See: Canadian_Criminal_Procedure_and_Practice/Appeals

Procedure/Pre-Sentence Report

General Principles

A Pre-sentence Report is a report that is generated by a probation officer on order of the court after interviewing the accused and collateral sources that is for the benefit of the judge in determining sentence.

The enabling provision that allows the ordering of a report is section 721, which states:

Report by probation officer
721. (1) Subject to regulations made under subsection (2), where an accused, other than an organization, pleads guilty to or is found guilty of an offence, a probation officer shall, if required to do so by a court, prepare and file with the court a report in writing relating to the accused for the purpose of assisting the court in imposing a sentence or in determining whether the accused should be discharged under section 730.
Provincial regulations
(2) The lieutenant governor in council of a province may make regulations respecting the types of offences for which a court may require a report, and respecting the content and form of the report.
Content of report
(3) Unless otherwise specified by the court, the report must, wherever possible, contain information on the following matters:

(a) the offender’s age, maturity, character, behaviour, attitude and willingness to make amends;

(b) subject to subsection 119(2) of the Youth Criminal Justice Act, the history of previous dispositions under the Young Offenders Act, chapter Y-1 of the Revised Statutes of Canada, 1985, the history of previous sentences under the Youth Criminal Justice Act, and of previous findings of guilt under this Act and any other Act of Parliament;

(c) the history of any alternative measures used to deal with the offender, and the offender’s response to those measures; and

(d) any matter required, by any regulation made under subsection (2), to be included in the report.

Idem
(4) The report must also contain information on any other matter required by the court, after hearing argument from the prosecutor and the offender, to be included in the report, subject to any contrary regulation made under subsection (2).
Copy of report
(5) The clerk of the court shall provide a copy of the report, as soon as practicable after filing, to the offender or counsel for the offender, as directed by the court, and to the prosecutor.
R.S., 1985, c. C-46, s. 721; R.S., 1985, c. 27 (1st Supp.), s. 203; 1995, c. 22, s. 6; 1999, c. 25, s. 16(Preamble); 2002, c. 1, s. 183; 2003, c. 21, s. 15.

– CCC

Under section 724(3)(b), where there is a dispute on factual claims within the report, the party relying upon it must prove the fact.

The purpose of a pre-sentence report is to provide a “picture of the accused as a person in society - his background, family, education, employment record, his physical and mental health, his associates and social activities, and his potentialities and motivations.”

The function is not to provide evidence of an offence, give details of a criminal record, or tell the court what sentence to give.

The judge may use the information in the report to assess the character of the accused in order to relate the offence to the accused.

Where a judge lacks full information on the background of the accused, particularly where the jeopardy of the accused is significant a judge should order a pre-sentence report.

Generally, a pre-sentence report should be considered when sentencing a first-time offender.

However, given the general limitations on resources, the judge may want to decline to order a report where there is no specific purpose in ordering one.

Procedure/Victim Impact Statement

Form of Statement

It has been suggested that in order for a VIS to be admissible it should contain the following:

• the statement is to be prepared in writing,
• the statement is to be in the form and in accordance with procedures established by a program designated for that purpose by the province,
• the statement is to be authored by a person meeting the definition of "victim" (s. 2 of Criminal Code, previously s.722(4)),
• the statement is to describe the harm done to, or loss suffered by, the victim arising from the commission of the offence,
• the statement is to be filed with the Court,
• the clerk of the Court is to provide a copy of the statement to the prosecution and the defence (s. 722.1 of the Code)

It is important that when considering the VIS that the court maintain its “independent neutrality" by not "react[ing] to public opinion as to the severity of sentences."

Inappropriate Content for a VIS

The Statement should describe the harm arising out of the offence. It is not an opportunity for the victim to criticize the offender, including his character, assert facts or recommend sentence. Such comments are inadmissible. Nor should there be reference to offences not charged.

There is limited cases where sentence recommendation may be admissible, such as during a sentencing circle.

It has been suggested the follow sort of statements not be permitted:

1. statements by persons with unidentified connections to the victim or to remote a connection
2. references to facts that are not accurate
3. statements speaking of the offender including character
4. suggesting penalties
5. seeks personal revenge
6. promoting an "eye for an eye"
7. statements that are inflammatory and jeopardize the desired restraint in sentencing
8. makes diagnoses of the offender
9. mischaracterizations of the offence or the law

Procedure/Plea Bargain

Introduction

A plea bargain is an agreement between the Crown and defence whereby the Defence agrees to plead guilty to particular offences in exchange for a particular proposal on sentence. If the defence accepts the offer on sentence, the agreement is put the judge as a jointly recommended sentence.

Joint Recommendations

A joint recommendation is an agreement on penalty between the Crown and Defence to present a single penalty recommendation that the judge is asked to adopt. There was a major development in the law on Joint Sentencing Submissions in R. v. Anthony‑Cook, 2016 SCC 43 which needs to be added to this section.

A joint recommendation does not need to encompass all aspects of the sentence. There can be a joint recommendation on part of a sentence, such as the form of penalty, while still keeping aspects of the penalty in dispute, such as the length of the penalty, conditions associated with the penalty, or ancillary orders.

A joint submission often indicates a lower range of sentence. The motivation for an agreement is often due to a weak aspect in the Crown's case or the risk of the judge giving a higher penalty than what would sought by defence without an agreement.

A joint recommendation may even be accepted where it is more lenient than the lower end of the normal range.

Sentences arising from a joint recommendation "have little or no precedential value."

Deference
A joint recommended sentence is a sentence for which the courts do not readily overturn. The court may only do so where the sentence in not within a reasonably appropriate range for the circumstances. The judge must give reasons for not adopting a joint recommendation.

A judge should give serious consideration to a joint sentencing proposal.

There is less weight given to "joint recommendations" that do not involve a "quid pro quo" (i.e. some reduced recommendation on sentence). Likewise, where the accused was without counsel less deference is given.

When Not Followed
If a judge has reservations to adopt a joint recommendations it should allow counsel an opportunity to respond. Likewise, where a judge is looking to go beyond the range set by counsel, the judge should equally provide notice to the parties before going above or below the range. Similarly, where a judge wishes to impose a condition that was not contemplated by either party nor could it have been easily foreseen, then the judge should also provide notice before doing so.

Other Issues
Where the accused misapprehended the joint recommendation, it can be grounds for a successful appeal of a sentence. Where an offender is unaware of a significant consequence of a particular sentence agreed upon, such as deportation without appeal, the court may reopen the consideration of sentence.

Repudiating a Plea Bargain

If the Crown renegs on a plea deal on sentence, the Defence may make application to withdraw the guilty plea.

Case Digests

• Plea Bargains

Procedure/Remand Credit

This book is a reference for practitioners, police officers, and law students who need a convenient way to look up legislation, principles, and case law. The reader is assumed to already have a knowledge of criminal law.

There is no guarantee whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or currency of the information provided in this or any other companion text. Nothing here should be taken as legal advice.

For recent developments on these series of books see News on Canadian Criminal Law series.

CAUTION: this wikibook ceased active development in 2012. A more up-to-date branch of this text can be found at http://criminalnotebook.ca. 

Contents

• Introduction

Principles and Factors

• Purpose and Principles of Sentencing
  • Totality
  • Aboriginal Offenders
• Factors of Sentencing

Tools of Sentencing

• Available Sentences
  • Discharges
  • Suspended Sentences and Probation
  • Fines
  • Restitution
  • Imprisonment
  • Concurrent and Consecutive Sentences
  • Maximum and Minimum Sentences
• Ancillary Orders
  • Weapons Prohibition Orders
  • DNA Orders
  • SOIRA Orders
  • Driving Prohibition Orders
  • Forfeiture Orders
    • Proceeds of Crime
    • Offence-related Property
    • Offence-related Property Under the Controlled Drugs Substances Act
    • Detention and Forfeiture Under Section 490

Procedure

• Procedure
  • Overview of Sentencing
  • Guilty Plea
  • Notice of Increased Penalty
  • Evidence
  • Pre-Sentence Report
  • Victim Impact Statement
  • Plea Bargain
  • Sentencing Circles

Sentencing by Offences

• Offences
  • Weapons Offences
  • Sexual Offences
  • Offences of Violence
  • Homicide
  • Disorderly Conduct
  • Gambling and Gaming
  • Hate Speech and Libel
  • Administration of Justice Offences
  • Motor Vehicle Offences
  • Property Offences
  • Drug Offences

Serving Sentences and Afterwards

• Parole
• Long-term and Dangerous Offender Designation
• Criminal Records

Young Offenders

• Young Offenders

Appendix

• Case Digests
• Checklist
• Offence Charts

Please add {{alphabetical}} only to book title pages.

Procedure/Charter Issues

This book is a reference for practitioners, police officers, and law students who need a convenient way to look up legislation, principles, and case law. The reader is assumed to already have a knowledge of criminal law.

There is no guarantee whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or currency of the information provided in this or any other companion text. Nothing here should be taken as legal advice.

For recent developments on these series of books see News on Canadian Criminal Law series.

CAUTION: this wikibook ceased active development in 2012. A more up-to-date branch of this text can be found at http://criminalnotebook.ca. 

Contents

• Introduction

Principles and Factors

• Purpose and Principles of Sentencing
  • Totality
  • Aboriginal Offenders
• Factors of Sentencing

Tools of Sentencing

• Available Sentences
  • Discharges
  • Suspended Sentences and Probation
  • Fines
  • Restitution
  • Imprisonment
  • Concurrent and Consecutive Sentences
  • Maximum and Minimum Sentences
• Ancillary Orders
  • Weapons Prohibition Orders
  • DNA Orders
  • SOIRA Orders
  • Driving Prohibition Orders
  • Forfeiture Orders
    • Proceeds of Crime
    • Offence-related Property
    • Offence-related Property Under the Controlled Drugs Substances Act
    • Detention and Forfeiture Under Section 490

Procedure

• Procedure
  • Overview of Sentencing
  • Guilty Plea
  • Notice of Increased Penalty
  • Evidence
  • Pre-Sentence Report
  • Victim Impact Statement
  • Plea Bargain
  • Sentencing Circles

Sentencing by Offences

• Offences
  • Weapons Offences
  • Sexual Offences
  • Offences of Violence
  • Homicide
  • Disorderly Conduct
  • Gambling and Gaming
  • Hate Speech and Libel
  • Administration of Justice Offences
  • Motor Vehicle Offences
  • Property Offences
  • Drug Offences

Serving Sentences and Afterwards

• Parole
• Long-term and Dangerous Offender Designation
• Criminal Records

Young Offenders

• Young Offenders

Appendix

• Case Digests
• Checklist
• Offence Charts

Please add {{alphabetical}} only to book title pages.

Procedure/Sentencing Circles

General Principles

A sentencing circle is an added step available in sentencing hearing process that are available to aboriginal offenders. At a point before the sentencing hearing a ceremony is held where the offender meets with the victims of the offences, community representatives, including elders, and members of the justice system, including the crown and defence counsel, sometimes the judge. The offender will be required to listen to each member's views on the offender and offence. The members of the circle will then collectively come to a conclusion as to a fit and proper sentence that will ultimately be considered by the judge sitting in court at a sentencing hearing.

Sentencing circles are given no mention in the Criminal Code. The authority to order a sentencing comes from the judge's power of the sentencing hearing.

The power over sentencing however stays with the judge at all times and can chose to not follow the recommendation of the circle.

Criteria for Permitting a Circle

A judge has discretion in ordering a sentencing circle. The expected criteria for ordering a circle requires:

1. The accused must agree to be referred to the sentencing circle.
2. The accused must have deep roots in the community in which the circle is held and from which the participants are drawn.
3. That there are elders or respected non-political community leaders willing to participate.
4. The victim is willing to participate and has been subjected to no coercion or pressure in so agreeing.
5. The court should try to determine beforehand, as best it can, if the victim is subject to battered spouse syndrome. If she is, then she should have counselling made available to her and be accompanied by a support team in the circle.
6. Disputed facts have been resolved in advance.
7. The case is one in which a court would be willing to take a calculated risk and depart from the usual range of sentencing.

On the second criteria, the judge will consider the evidence before him and must be satisfied that there is a community with the following characteristics:

1. the community is reasonably well defined by reason of the racial origin of its members, their religion or their culture or by geography or some other feature which distinguishes the community from other communities;
2. the community recognizes the accused not only as a member but as one who has the kind of relationship with the community that ought to make him or her feel accountable to it for any criminal wrongdoing;
3. the community supports the accused in his or her difficulty with the law and is prepared to accept the accused as a person who has the capacity, inclination, need and the sincerity to be restored (healed) in his or her relationship with the community and in his or her relationship with the victims of the wrongdoing;
4. the community has sufficient healing or restorative resources to help the accused (and where necessary the other persons affected by the wrongdoing) in the restoration or healing.

Case Digests

• R v McDonald, 2012 SKQB 158 - request denied due to a lack of appropriately defined "community"

See Also

• Canadian Criminal Sentencing/Aboriginal Principles and Factors

Parole

Introduction

Parole is the program whereby offenders are permitted to be released from the correctional facility or penitentiary before the expiration of sentence. Parole is a form of supervised release where their release is conditional on terms set by the Parole Board.

The parole ineligibility runs from the date of arrest.

Early Release

Under s. 120 of the Corrections and Conditional Release Act, SC 1992 c 20, the offender are ineligible for release anytime before the one third mark of their sentence or 7 years, whichever is less.

Statutory Release

"Statutory release" refers to the eligibility for release of an offender at the two-thirds mark of their total sentence pursuant to the Parole Act. The premise is that an offender was credited with "remission" that gave extra credit for time served in custody.

Under the Corrections and Conditional Release Act, an offender will be releasable after two-thirds of the sentence can be revocable by the Parole Board for those who are serving sentences for offences listed in Schedules I and II of the Act.

Accelerated Parole

Under s. 125 to 126.1 of the Corrections and Conditional Release Act, permitted first time, non-violent offenders to apply for day parole at the one-sixth mark of their sentence and full parole at one-third of their sentence. The Parole Board must be satisfied there are no reasonable grounds to believe that the offender is likely to commit an offence involving violence before the expiration of their sentence.

On March 24th, 2011, the Abolition of Early Parole Act Bill C-59, was assented, repealing s. 125 to 126.1 of the Corrections and Conditional Release Act.

The removal of accelerated parole cannot be retrospective or it will violate s. 11(h) of the Charter.

Court Ordered Delayed Parole

The court has the power under s. 743.6 [46] to delay the eligibility of parole to either one half of the global sentence or 10 years, whichever is less.

The test for delayed release is whether the court is "satisfied, having regard to the circumstances of the commission of the offence and the character and circumstances of the offender, that the expression of society’s denunciation of the offence or the objective of specific or general deterrence so requires, order that the portion of the sentence that must be served before the offender may be released on full parole is one half of the sentence or ten years, whichever is less."

Any consideration of applying this section must conform with procedural fairness and permit the defence an opportunity to respond to the application. Where possible notice should be given to defence in advance.

A failure of a jury to make a recommendation on parole ineligibility does not restrict a judge from making a decision on parole ineligibility who always has the final say on sentence.

Long-term and Dangerous Offender Designation

Introduction

Part XXIV of the Code, between s. 752 and 761, creates a regime to designate certain offenders as either "long-term offenders" (LTO) or "dangerous offenders" (DO). These offenders will be subject to either a long-term offender supervision order, in the case of an LTO, or a order of indeterminate detention, in the case of the DO.

A judge of a provincial court or a superior court judge may issue a LTO or DO order.

Assessment for LTO/DO

The starting point for determining if an offender can be designated an LTO or DO is to have the offender psychologically assessed.

Notice

Prosecutor’s duty to advise court
752.01 If the prosecutor is of the opinion that an offence for which an offender is convicted is a serious personal injury offence that is a designated offence and that the offender was convicted previously at least twice of a designated offence and was sentenced to at least two years of imprisonment for each of those convictions, the prosecutor shall advise the court, as soon as feasible after the finding of guilt and in any event before sentence is imposed, whether the prosecutor intends to make an application under subsection 752.1(1).
2008, c. 6, s. 41.

– CCC

Application

Application for remand for assessment
752.1 (1) On application by the prosecutor, if the court is of the opinion that there are reasonable grounds to believe that an offender who is convicted of a serious personal injury offence or an offence referred to in paragraph 753.1(2)(a) might be found to be a dangerous offender under section 753 or a long-term offender under section 753.1, the court shall, by order in writing, before sentence is imposed, remand the offender, for a period not exceeding 60 days, to the custody of a person designated by the court who can perform an assessment or have an assessment performed by experts for use as evidence in an application under section 753 or 753.1.
Report
(2) The person to whom the offender is remanded shall file a report of the assessment with the court not later than 30 days after the end of the assessment period and make copies of it available to the prosecutor and counsel for the offender.
Extension of time
(3) On application by the prosecutor, the court may extend the period within which the report must be filed by a maximum of 30 days if the court is satisfied that there are reasonable grounds to do so.
1997, c. 17, s. 4; 2008, c. 6, s. 41.

– CCC

Long Term Offender (LTO)

A long term offender order subjects an offender to supervision by Corrections Canada for a period of up to 10 years.

The purpose of the long term offender order is to “protect society from the threat that the offender currently poses -- and to do so without resort to the blunt instrument of indeterminate detention”. It further intends to reintegrate the accused into the community.

It is incorrect to conclude that the sentencing factors for a breach of an LTO is "protection of the public". It is not necessary that "significant sentences must be imposed even for the slightest breaches" of LTO.

Severity of an LTO breach depends on factors including:

1. the circumstances of the breach;
2. the nature of the condition breached; and
3. the relationship between the condition breached and the management of offender’s risk of re-offence.

Requirements of a LTO

Application for finding that an offender is a long-term offender
753.1 (1) Application for finding that an offender is a long-term offender - The court may, on application made under this Part following the filing of an assessment report under subsection 752.1(2), find an offender to be a long-term offender if it is satisfied that

(a) it would be appropriate to impose a sentence of imprisonment of two years or more for the offence for which the offender has been convicted;

(b) there is a substantial risk that the offender will reoffend; and

(c) there is a reasonable possibility of eventual control of the risk in the community.

Substantial risk
(2) The court shall be satisfied that there is a substantial risk that the offender will reoffend if

(a) the offender has been convicted of an offence under section 151 (sexual interference), 152 (invitation to sexual touching) or 153 (sexual exploitation), subsection 163.1(2) (making child pornography), 163.1(3) (distribution, etc., of child pornography), 163.1(4) (possession of child pornography) or 163.1(4.1) (accessing child pornography), section 170 (parent or guardian procuring sexual activity), 171 (householder permitting sexual activity), 171.1 (making sexually explicit material available to child), 172.1 (luring a child) or 172.2 (agreement or arrangement — sexual offence against child), subsection 173(2) (exposure), 212(2) (living on the avails of prostitution of person under eighteen), 212(2.1) (aggravated offence in relation to living on the avails of prostitution of a person under the age of eighteen years) or 212(4) (offence — prostitution of person under eighteen) or section 271 (sexual assault), 272 (sexual assault with a weapon) or 273 (aggravated sexual assault), or has engaged in serious conduct of a sexual nature in the commission of another offence of which the offender has been convicted; and

(b) the offender

(i) has shown a pattern of repetitive behaviour, of which the offence for which he or she has been convicted forms a part, that shows a likelihood of the offender’s causing death or injury to other persons or inflicting severe psychological damage on other persons, or

(ii) by conduct in any sexual matter including that involved in the commission of the offence for which the offender has been convicted, has shown a likelihood of causing injury, pain or other evil to other persons in the future through similar offences.

Sentence for long-term offender
(3)  If offender found to be long-term offender - Subject to subsection 3.1, (4) and (5), if the court finds an offender to be a long-term offender, it shall

(a) impose a sentence for the offence for which the offender has been convicted, which sentence must be a minimum punishment of imprisonment for a term of two years; and

(b) order the offender to be supervised in the community, for a period not exceeding 10 years, in accordance with section 753.2 and the Corrections and Conditional Release Act.

...
(6)  If offender not found to be long-term offender - If the court does not find an offender to be a long-term offender, the court shall impose sentence for the offence for which the offender has been convicted.
1997, c. 17, s. 4; 2002, c. 13, s. 76; 2008, c. 6, s. 44; 2012, c. 1, s. 36.

– CCC

Consequence of LTO Finding

s. 753.1 states that :

Sentence for long-term offender
(3) If the court finds an offender to be a long-term offender, it shall

(a) impose a sentence for the offence for which the offender has been convicted, which must be a minimum punishment of imprisonment for a term of two years; and

(b) order that the offender be subject to long-term supervision for a period that does not exceed 10 years.

– CCC

Under s. 752, insteances of the phrase "long-term supervision" refers to "long-term supervision ordered under subsection 753(4), 753.01(5) or (6) or 753.1(3) or subparagraph 759(3)(a)(i)"

Dangerous Offender (DO)

Under s. 753, the Court may make an order declaring an accused a "Dangerous Offender" requiring the accused to serve an indeterminate sentence as opposed to a determinitae sentence to an index offence.

The purpose of the dangerous offender order is to protect the public. It was designed “to carefully define a very small group of offenders whose personal characteristics and particular circumstances militate strenuously in favour of preventative incarceration”

Requirements of a DO

Application for finding that an offender is a dangerous offender
753. (1) On application made under this Part after an assessment report is filed under subsection 752.1(2), the court shall find the offender to be a dangerous offender if it is satisfied

(a) that the offence for which the offender has been convicted is a serious personal injury offence described in paragraph (a) of the definition of that expression in section 752 and the offender constitutes a threat to the life, safety or physical or mental well-being of other persons on the basis of evidence establishing

(i) a pattern of repetitive behaviour by the offender, of which the offence for which he or she has been convicted forms a part, showing a failure to restrain his or her behaviour and a likelihood of causing death or injury to other persons, or inflicting severe psychological damage on other persons, through failure in the future to restrain his or her behaviour,

(ii) a pattern of persistent aggressive behaviour by the offender, of which the offence for which he or she has been convicted forms a part, showing a substantial degree of indifference on the part of the offender respecting the reasonably foreseeable consequences to other persons of his or her behaviour, or

(iii) any behaviour by the offender, associated with the offence for which he or she has been convicted, that is of such a brutal nature as to compel the conclusion that the offender’s behaviour in the future is unlikely to be inhibited by normal standards of behavioural restraint; or

(b) that the offence for which the offender has been convicted is a serious personal injury offence described in paragraph (b) of the definition of that expression in section 752 and the offender, by his or her conduct in any sexual matter including that involved in the commission of the offence for which he or she has been convicted, has shown a failure to control his or her sexual impulses and a likelihood of causing injury, pain or other evil to other persons through failure in the future to control his or her sexual impulses.

Presumption
(1.1) If the court is satisfied that the offence for which the offender is convicted is a primary designated offence for which it would be appropriate to impose a sentence of imprisonment of two years or more and that the offender was convicted previously at least twice of a primary designated offence and was sentenced to at least two years of imprisonment for each of those convictions, the conditions in paragraph (1)(a) or (b), as the case may be, are presumed to have been met unless the contrary is proved on a balance of probabilities.
...
R.S., 1985, c. C-46, s. 753; 1997, c. 17, s. 4; 2008, c. 6, s. 42.

– CCC

There are two ways to establish a the criteria. The difference depends on which type of serious personal injury (SPI) offence has been established by the index offence. The first is of a more general nature of unlawfulness while the second targets sexual behaviour.

An SPI offence under s. 752(a) requires either some form of violence or risk of harm (see Serious Personal Injury Offences below for details). This type of SPI offence engages s. 753(1)(a), which requires that the "offender [constitute] a threat to the life, safety or physical or mental well-being of other persons" by reason of a "repetitive", "persistent", or "brutal" behaviour.

An SPI offence under s. 752(b) requires the index offence be a type of sexual assault, sexual assault with a weapon, threats to a third party or causing bodily harm, or aggravated sexual assault. (see Serious Personal Injury Offences below for details). This type of SPI offence engages s. 753(1)(b), which requires that the offender "has shown a failure to control his or her sexual impulses and a likelihood of causing injury, pain or other evil to other persons through failure in the future to control his or her sexual impulses".

The burden is upon the crown to establish the necessary elements under s. 753(1)(a)(i) and (ii) or 753(1)(b) of a DO designation beyond a reasonable doubt. The burden must be proven beyond a reasonable doubt that the accused. The burden never switches to the accused.

Before considering whether the offender is a Dangerous Offender, the Court must consider whether the accused is a Long Term Offfender (LTO).

It is only where an LTO is not an appropriate disposition, in light of sentencing principles of s. 718, that the court may consider a DO.

Intractable condition

The Crown must prove that the offender's condition is substantially or pathologically intractable.

In determining intractability, the courts have considered the following:

1. deeply ingrained personality disorders that are resistant to change;
2. a lack of available and appropriate treatment facilities;
3. a poor outlook for improvement, even where facilities exist;
4. an inability to estimate or predict a timeframe for improvement;
5. some, but very little hope for treatment some time in the future; and
6. treatment that will be long and difficult because an offender has more than one disorder and a limited capacity to learn.

The court must be satisfied that the treatment can be accomplished within a certain time-frame within an LTO order for one to be available.

Reasonable possibility of controlling risk in the community

There is no need for the Crown to show uncontrollability of the offender

A "reasonable possibility" of controlling the risk must have an air of reality to it and cannot simply be a mere hope.

The crown does not need to refute the possibility that there is a reasonable possibility that the risk to the community will eventually be controlled.

In considering the risk to the community, the court may consider past failed attempts at rehabilitation.

If the level of supervision is so great as to amount to custody the offender is not likely a candidate for a LTO.

"Pattern of Persistent Behaviour"

Persistent can have the same meaning as "enduring" or "constantly repeated".

To determine if there is a pattern of repetitive behaviour, the court should consider the nature of the similarity of the predicate office. This includes considering "similarities in terms of the kind of offences" and where the offences are not "similar in kind", but "in results" upon the victims (ie. degree of violence).

Where the offender commits a variety of crimes with no patterns, they can still be a "pattern of persistent behaviour". There "is no requirement that the past criminal actions all be of the same or similar form, order or arrangement; though if this has occurred, it may well suffice."

"Substantial Degree of Indifference"

When considering the criteria of "substantial degree of indifference" ,the court may look at the offender's actions in the offence as well as other offences. The consideration should be upon whether "the offender has a conscious but uncaring awareness of causing harm to others and this has occurred over a period of long duration involving frequent acts and with significant consequences, this is sufficient to establish a substantial degree of indifference."

Serious Personal Injury Offences

s. 752
...
“serious personal injury offence” means

(a) an indictable offence, other than high treason, treason, first degree murder or second degree murder, involving

(i) the use or attempted use of violence against another person, or

(ii) conduct endangering or likely to endanger the life or safety of another person or inflicting or likely to inflict severe psychological damage on another person,

and for which the offender may be sentenced to imprisonment for ten years or more, or

(b) an offence or attempt to commit an offence mentioned in section 271 (sexual assault), 272 (sexual assault with a weapon, threats to a third party or causing bodily harm) or 273 (aggravated sexual assault).

R.S., 1985, c. C-46, s. 752; 2008, c. 6, ss. 40, 61; 2010, c. 3, s. 8; 2012, c. 1, s. 35.

– CCC

In determining whether an offence is a SPIO, the court does not need to be "limited to considering only those contextual factors that relate to the conduct" of the accused. The judge can look at the surrounding circumstances to determine if there has been an endangerment of another person under s. 752.

Robberies have frequently been found to a serious personal injury offence.

Not every threat made while brandishing a weapon involves violence, particularly where there is no immediate apparent danger.

Where there is a threat of any sort the question of it amounting to violence is a question of fact. Robberies involving utterances or brandishing of objects have been a mixed result.

"use or attempted use of violence"

The use or attempted use of violence does not necessarily require overt violence. Several cases have stated that a robbery wherein a weapon such as a knife is displayed amounts to an act of violence.

The meaning of "violence" in this context covers a "very expansive range of dangerous behaviour".

"conduct endangering...life or safety"

This can cover the offence of leaving the scene of an accident under s. 252(3.1)

"inflict severe psychological damage"

SPI offences do not have to be offences against persons. They may also be lesser offences that involve conduct that inflicts or likely inflicts severe psychological damage. This can include offences involving sending threatening letters to victim to dissuade them from giving evidence.

A party to an offence of violence, such as someone who counsels robbery with violence, can be found to have committed a serious personal injury offence.

It is not necessary to adduce expert evidence about the risk of severe psychological damage. The judge may determine it on an objective consideration of the evidence.

Designated Offences

752
...
“designated offence” means

(a) a primary designated offence,

(b) an offence under any of the following provisions:

(i) paragraph 81(1)(a) (using explosives),

(ii) paragraph 81(1)(b) (using explosives),

(iii) section 85 (using firearm or imitation firearm in commission of offence),

(iv) section 87 (pointing firearm),

(iv.1) section 98 (breaking and entering to steal firearm),

(iv.2) section 98.1 (robbery to steal firearm),

(v) section 153.1 (sexual exploitation of person with disability),

(vi) section 163.1 (child pornography),

(vii) section 170 (parent or guardian procuring sexual activity),

(viii) section 171 (householder permitting sexual activity by or in presence of child),

(ix) section 172.1 (luring child),

(ix.1) section 172.2 (agreement or arrangement — sexual offence against child),

(x) subsection 212(1) (procuring),

(x.1) subsection 212(2) (living on avails of prostitution of person under eighteen),

(xi) subsection 212(2.1) (aggravated offence in relation to living on avails of prostitution of person under 18),

(xii) subsection 212(4) (prostitution of person under 18),

(xiii) section 245 (administering noxious thing),

(xiv) section 266 (assault),

(xv) section 269 (unlawfully causing bodily harm),

(xvi) section 269.1 (torture),

(xvii) paragraph 270(1)(a) (assaulting peace officer),

(xviii) section 273.3 (removal of child from Canada),

(xix) subsection 279(2) (forcible confinement),

(xx) section 279.01 (trafficking in persons),

(xx.1) section 279.011 (trafficking of a person under the age of eighteen years),

(xxi) section 279.1 (hostage taking),

(xxii) section 280 (abduction of person under age of 16),

(xxiii) section 281 (abduction of person under age of 14),

(xxiv) section 344 (robbery), and

(xxv) section 348 (breaking and entering with intent, committing offence or breaking out),

(c) an offence under any of the following provisions of the Criminal Code, chapter C-34 of the Revised Statutes of Canada, 1970, as they read from time to time before January 1, 1988:

(i) subsection 146(2) (sexual intercourse with female between ages of 14 and 16),

(ii) section 148 (sexual intercourse with feeble-minded),

(iii) section 166 (parent or guardian procuring defilement), and

(iv) section 167 (householder permitting defilement), or

(d) an attempt or conspiracy to commit an offence referred to in paragraph (b) or (c);

...
R.S., 1985, c. C-46, s. 752; 2008, c. 6, ss. 40, 61; 2010, c. 3, s. 8; 2012, c. 1, s. 35.

– CCC

Later in s. 752:

“primary designated offence” means

(a) an offence under any of the following provisions:

(i) section 151 (sexual interference),

(ii) section 152 (invitation to sexual touching),

(iii) section 153 (sexual exploitation),

(iv) section 155 (incest),

(v) section 239 (attempt to commit murder),

(vi) section 244 (discharging firearm with intent),

(vii) section 267 (assault with weapon or causing bodily harm),

(viii) section 268 (aggravated assault),

(ix) section 271 (sexual assault),

(x) section 272 (sexual assault with weapon, threats to third party or causing bodily harm),

(xi) section 273 (aggravated sexual assault), and

(xii) subsection 279(1) (kidnapping),

(b) an offence under any of the following provisions of the Criminal Code, chapter C-34 of the Revised Statutes of Canada, 1970, as they read from time to time before January 4, 1983:

(i) section 144 (rape),

(ii) section 145 (attempt to commit rape),

(iii) section 149 (indecent assault on female),

(iv) section 156 (indecent assault on male),

(v) subsection 245(2) (assault causing bodily harm), and

(vi) subsection 246(1) (assault with intent) if the intent is to commit an offence referred to in any of subparagraphs (i) to (v) of this paragraph,

(c) an offence under any of the following provisions of the Criminal Code, chapter C-34 of the Revised Statutes of Canada, 1970, as enacted by section 19 of An Act to amend the Criminal Code in relation to sexual offences and other offences against the person and to amend certain other Acts in relation thereto or in consequence thereof, chapter 125 of the Statutes of Canada, 1980-81-82-83:

(i) section 246.1 (sexual assault),

(ii) section 246.2 (sexual assault with weapon, threats to third party or causing bodily harm), and

(iii) section 246.3 (aggravated sexual assault),

(d) an offence under any of the following provisions of the Criminal Code, chapter C-34 of the Revised Statutes of Canada, 1970, as they read from time to time before January 1, 1988:

(i) subsection 146(1) (sexual intercourse with female under age of 14), and

(ii) paragraph 153(1)(a) (sexual intercourse with step-daughter), or

(e) an attempt or conspiracy to commit an offence referred to in any of paragraphs (a) to (d);

...
R.S., 1985, c. C-46, s. 752; 2008, c. 6, ss. 40, 61; 2010, c. 3, s. 8; 2012, c. 1, s. 35.

– CCC

This is similar but different from DNA primary designated offences

Digests

• Canadian Criminal Sentencing/Cases/LTO and DO Applications

V - Young Offenders

Introduction

Part IV of the YCJA (s.41 to 82) addresses sentencing of young offenders.

The relationship of the YCJA and the Criminal Code is addressed in ss. 140 to 142. The Criminal Code applies equally "except to the extent that it is inconsistent with or excluded by this Act" (s. 140).

The consequence of this is that the sentencing options are significantly different from the adult options of sentence as the YCJA explicitly outlines the available sentences for all young offenders.

Protection of Identity

Under s. 110 and 129 of the YCJA, any information that would identify an offender cannot be published or released to the public at any time. Likewise, under s. 111 and 129, any information that would identify a victim or witness who is a young person cannot be published or released to the public at any time.

If either s. 110 or 111 is violated, the offending person may be liable under s. 138 either on summary conviction or for an indictable offence with a maximum penalty of two years in prison.

Principles and Purpose of Sentencing

Purpose
38. (1) The purpose of sentencing under section 42 (youth sentences) is to hold a young person accountable for an offence through the imposition of just sanctions that have meaningful consequences for the young person and that promote his or her rehabilitation and reintegration into society, thereby contributing to the long-term protection of the public.
Sentencing principles
(2) A youth justice court that imposes a youth sentence on a young person shall determine the sentence in accordance with the principles set out in section 3 and the following principles:

(a) the sentence must not result in a punishment that is greater than the punishment that would be appropriate for an adult who has been convicted of the same offence committed in similar circumstances;

(b) the sentence must be similar to the sentences imposed in the region on similar young persons found guilty of the same offence committed in similar circumstances;

(c) the sentence must be proportionate to the seriousness of the offence and the degree of responsibility of the young person for that offence;

(d) all available sanctions other than custody that are reasonable in the circumstances should be considered for all young persons, with particular attention to the circumstances of aboriginal young persons; and

(e) subject to paragraph (c), the sentence must

(i) be the least restrictive sentence that is capable of achieving the purpose set out in subsection (1),

(ii) be the one that is most likely to rehabilitate the young person and reintegrate him or her into society, and

(iii) promote a sense of responsibility in the young person, and an acknowledgement of the harm done to victims and the community.

– YCJA

Sentencing under the YCJA focuses on "the individual young person and how best to achieve the stated objectives of the [YCJA] in the particular circumstances."

Parliament's intention with the YCJA is to "reduce over-reliance on custodial sentences for young offenders." It further intends to "prevent youth crime by addressing the underlying circumstances leading to the offending behaviour of a youth" and "promote rehabilitation of youthful offenders, while ensuring meaningful consequences for the offending behaviour."

The objectives of the YCJA have the effect of favouring "rehabilitation, reintegration and the principle of a fair and proportionate accountability that is consistent with the young person’s reduced level of maturity."

Denunciation plays no role in sentencing of young persons. Nor do general and specific deterrence.

Consequently, a judge may not conclude that a sentence would fail to hold the offender accountable due to the sentence's failure to meet the objectives of denunciation and deterrence.

Accountability

The principle of accountability drives "drives the entire YCJA sentencing regime."

Accountability is achieved by imposing "meaningful consequences for the offender and sanctions that promote his or her rehabilitation and reintegration into society"

Factors of Sentencing

Factors to be considered
(3) In determining a youth sentence, the youth justice court shall take into account

(a) the degree of participation by the young person in the commission of the offence;

(b) the harm done to victims and whether it was intentional or reasonably foreseeable;

(c) any reparation made by the young person to the victim or the community;

(d) the time spent in detention by the young person as a result of the offence;

(e) the previous findings of guilt of the young person; and

(f) any other aggravating and mitigating circumstances related to the young person or the offence that are relevant to the purpose and principles set out in this section.

– YCJA

Available Dispositions

Section 42(2) sets out all youth sentences available to a sentencing judge:

1. reprimand
2. absolute discharge
3. conditional discharge
4. fine
5. damages
6. restitution
7. other compensation such as personal service
8. community service
9. prohibition, seizure or forfeiture orders,
10. probation of two years or less
11. intensive support or supervision program
12. non-residential programs of no more than 6 months
13. custody and supervision order
14. deferred custody and supervision order
15. intensive rehabilitative custody and supervision order
16. any other reasonable and ancillary conditions

Probation

An order of probation can be imposed for a period of no more than two years.

Under s. 55, the mandatory conditions consist of:

• keep the peace and be of good behaviour; and
• appear before the youth justice court when required by the court to do so.

Optional conditions include:

• report to and be supervised by the provincial director or a person designated by the youth justice court;
• notify the clerk of the youth justice court, the provincial director or the youth worker assigned to the case of any change of address or any change in the young person’s place of employment, education or training;
• remain within the territorial jurisdiction of one or more courts named in the order;
• make reasonable efforts to obtain and maintain suitable employment;
• attend school or any other place of learning, training or recreation that is appropriate, if the youth justice court is satisfied that a suitable program for the young person is available there;
• reside with a parent, or any other adult that the youth justice court considers appropriate, who is willing to provide for the care and maintenance of the young person;
• reside at a place that the provincial director may specify;
• comply with any other conditions set out in the order that the youth justice court considers appropriate, including conditions for securing the young person’s good conduct and for preventing the young person from repeating the offence or committing other offences; and
• not own, possess or have the control of any weapon, ammunition, prohibited ammunition, prohibited device or explosive substance, except as authorized by the order.

Adult Sentences

Under s. 64(1) of the YCJA the Crown may apply to the court to have the accused sentenced as an adult:

64(1) The Attorney General may, following an application under subsection 42(9) (judicial determination of serious violent offence), if any is made, and before evidence is called as to sentence or, where no evidence is called, before submissions are made as to sentence, make an application for an order that a young person is liable to an adult sentence if the young person is or has been found guilty of an offence, other than a presumptive offence, for which an adult is liable to imprisonment for a term of more than two years, that was committed after the young person attained the age of fourteen years.

– YCJA

Under s. 72 of the YCJA, the court determines whether the grant the request for an adult sentence:

72(1) In making its decision on an application heard in accordance with section 71, the youth justice court shall consider the seriousness and circumstances of the offence, and the age, maturity, character, background and previous record of the young person and any other factors that the court considers relevant, and

(a) if it is of the opinion that a youth sentence imposed in accordance with the purpose and principles set out in subparagraph 3(1)(b)(ii) and section 38 would have sufficient length to hold the young person accountable for his or her offending behaviour, it shall order that the young person is not liable to an adult sentence and that a youth sentence must be imposed; and

(b) if it is of the opinion that a youth sentence imposed in accordance with the purpose and principles set out in subparagraph 3(1)(b)(ii) and section 38 would not have sufficient length to hold the young person accountable for his or her offending behaviour, it shall order that an adult sentence be imposed.

(2) The onus of satisfying the youth justice court as to the matters referred to in subsection (1) is with the applicant.
(3) In making its decision, the youth justice court shall consider a pre-sentence report.
(4) When the youth justice court makes an order under this section, it shall state the reasons for its decision.
(5) For the purposes of an appeal in accordance with section 37, an order under subsection (1) is part of the sentence.

– YCJA

In order for the offender to be sentenced as an adult, the judge must be satisfied that the youth sentence will not be long enough to achieve the goals of accountability.

There is a presumption of "diminished moral culpability in young persons".

The burden in on the Crown to establish that a adult sentence is necessary. This includes rebutting the presumption of diminished culpability.

This burden is overcome if "the seriousness of the offence and the circumstances of the offender justify it notwithstanding his or her age."

There is not a "very heavy onus" on the Crown and does not require proof beyond a reasonable doubt. The underlying facts, however, must always be proven beyond a reasonable doubt.

The court must "weigh and balance the enumerated factors and then to decide whether a youth sentence is sufficiently long to hold a young person accountable for his or her offending behaviour".

Ancillary Orders

It is worth noting that the language of the provisions relating to SOIRA indicates that it does not apply to young offenders. DNA orders however do apply in the same way that it does to adults.

Specific Offences

Homicide

Persons under eighteen
745.1 The sentence to be pronounced against a person who was under the age of eighteen at the time of the commission of the offence for which the person was convicted of first degree murder or second degree murder and who is to be sentenced to imprisonment for life shall be that the person be sentenced to imprisonment for life without eligibility for parole until the person has served

(a) such period between five and seven years of the sentence as is specified by the judge presiding at the trial, or if no period is specified by the judge presiding at the trial, five years, in the case of a person who was under the age of sixteen at the time of the commission of the offence;

(b) ten years, in the case of a person convicted of first degree murder who was sixteen or seventeen years of age at the time of the commission of the offence; and

(c) seven years, in the case of a person convicted of second degree murder who was sixteen or seventeen years of age at the time of the commission of the offence.

1995, c. 22, ss. 6, 21.

– CCC

Sentencing Digests

• Canadian Criminal Sentencing/Cases/Young Offenders

Appendix/Checklist

This checklist consists of issues that are often considered in preparation for sentencing. The list is based on the one found at the Law Society of British Columbia website [47].

Crown Preparation

• prepare and review summary of facts
• prepare copy of accused's record
• consider PSR (s. 721)
• obtain victim impact statements (s. 722(4))
• consider restitution, may need to call evidence if not in agreement (s. 738)
• prepare and review cases on sentence
• prepare list of conditions appropriate for sentence (on CSO or probation)

Defence Preparation

• obtain letters of reference and support

Client's background

• Age
• History of places of residence
• Family relations ( siblings, spouses, children )

Education

• Level of Education
• Post-secondary education
• Certificates earned / licences

Employment

• Employment history
• employment prospects

Offence Circumstances

• accused mental state at time (intoxication/personal difficulties)
• degree of contact with victim (e.g. physical contact/proximity)
• degree of harm to victim
• degree of violence (intended/actual/threatened/potential)
• attempts to minimize violence
• use of a weapon
• degree of provocation
• whether accused was in a position of trust
• whether offence was isolated or part of enterprise
• role of accused (prinicpal; follower; instigator; intended outcome)
• Motive
• Impact on the offender (lost licence/job/relationship)
• Whether accused co-operated with police

Risk to the Public

• whether record has numerous offences and suggests removal from public necessary
• whether record has serious offences and suggests removal from public necessary
• whether accused is a dangerous, mentally unstable person and needs to be removed from public
• extent to which there are similar offences in the community
• whether the accused's income comes from illegal activity and makes it a livelihood

Rehabilitation

• whether there is a persistent pattern of criminal activity (note periods of time in community without criminal activity)
• consider motive for offence (e.g. lead-up) and whether it could happen again
• whether the client is remorseful and willing to report such to the court
• consider physical/mental disabilities that are treatable/controllable
• consider addiction history (treatment programs, dates, and outcomes)

Supporting evidence

Sources

• obtain consent to release documentation (medical, school, etc.)
• get contact info for collateral sources as character references
• get name of probation officer and get permission to contact them (contact probation officer and get input)

Documents

• Pre-sentence report
• get letters of reference (employer or character reference)
• letter from probation officer or corrections officer on progress
• restitution amount
• apology letter to victim
• medical/psychiatric reports

Sentence issues

Dispositions

• ability to pay fines (if so, time needed to pay)
• ability to complete community service (if not, why?)
• ability to comply with boundary conditions (stay away from areas or people)
• Possibility of a request for a DNA Order (consider reasons why not)
• Possibility of a request for a weapons prohibition (consider reasons why not)

Procedure

• review recommendations of parties
• remind of opportunity to address judge
• notify of victim fine surcharge

Dispositions

1. Withdraw
2. Diversion
3. Peace Bond
4. Absolute Discharge
5. Conditional Discharge
6. Suspended Sentence
7. Fine
8. Conditional Sentence
9. Intermittent Jail
10. Provincial Jail
11. Federal Prison
12. Driving Prohibition
13. Restitution
14. DNA Order
15. SOIRA ORder
16. Weapons Prohibition Order

Probation

• keep the peace and be of good behaviour;
• appear before the court when required to do so by the court; and
• notify the court or the probation officer in advance of any change of name or address, and promptly notify the court or the probation officer of any change of employment or occupation.

• report to a probation officer
  • within 2 working days, or as the court directs, and
  • thereafter, when required by the probation officer;
• remain within the jurisdiction of the court unless written permission to go outside that jurisdiction;
• abstain from
  • the consumption of alcohol or other intoxicating substances, or
  • the consumption of drugs except in accordance with a medical prescription;
• abstain from owning, possessing or carrying a weapon;
• provide for the support or care of dependents;
• perform up to 240 hours of community service over <= 18 months;
• if the offender agrees, participate actively in a treatment program approved by the province;
• attend at a treatment facility for assessment and curative treatment in relation to the consumption by the offender of alcohol or drugs that is recommended pursuant to the program;
• where [there is] a program governing the use of an alcohol ignition interlock device by an offender and if the offender agrees to participate in the program, comply with the program; and
• comply with such other reasonable conditions as the court considers desirable, subject to any regulations made under subsection 738(2), for protecting society and for facilitating the offender’s successful reintegration into the community.

Sentencing Procedure

Crown submissions:

1. crown states position on sentence
2. crown establishes facts to be relied upon
   1. read summary of facts
   2. call witnesses if disputed facts (s. 724(3)(a)) or call witnesses anyway (s. 732(2)) [hearsay is admissible (723(5))]
   3. facts are on record already from trial
3. submit criminal record
4. submit notice to seek increased penalty
5. submit / read victim impact statement
6. review and comment on pre-sentence report
7. review and comment on relevant cases
8. make recommendation on conditions in probation or CSO
9. request ancillary orders

Defence submissions:

1. offender's background including employment, family, health, and financial circumstances
2. submit letters of recommendation and character witnesses
3. review and comment on relevant cases
4. make recommendation on sentence
5. comment on ability to pay the victim fine surcharge / time needed to pay any fines
6. comment on any ancillary orders being requested
7. comment on conditions in probation or CSO (particularly with curfew and house arrest exceptions)

Offences/Offences by Penalty

Offences

Weapons Offences

• Use of Firearm in Commission of an Offence (85)
• Unsafe Storage of a Firearm (86)
• Pointing a Firearm (87)
• Possession of a Weapon for a Dangerous Purpose (88)
• Carrying a Concealed Weapon (90)
• Unauthorized Possession of a Firearm (91)
• Possession of Unauthorized Firearm (92)
• Possession of a Restricted or Prohibited Firearm (95)
• Weapons Trafficking (99, 100)
• Possession of a Weapon Contrary to an Order (117.01)
• Discharging a Firearm (244, 244.1)

Sexual Offences

• Sexual Interference (151)
• Invitation to Sexual Touching (152)
• Sexual Exploitation (153)
• Incest (155)
• Bestiality (160)
• Voyeurism (162)
• Obscenity (163)
• Child Pornography (163.1)
• Making Sexual Explicit Materials Available to Child (171.1)
• Child Luring (172.1)
• Agree or Arrange a Sexual Offence Against Child (172.2)
• Keeping Common Bawdy-house (210)
• Procuring and Living on the Avails of Prostitution (212)
• Solicitation (213)
• Sexual Assault (271)
• Sexual Assault with a Weapon (272)
• Sexual Assault Causing Bodily Harm (272)
• Aggravated Sexual Assault (273)

Disorderly Conduct

• Unlawful Assembly and Rioting (63, 64)
• Indecent Act (173)
• Causing a Disturbance (175)
• Trespassing at Night (177)

Offences of Violence

• Failing to Provide the Necessities of Life (215)
• Criminal Negligence (220)
• Administering a Noxious Substance (245)
• Overcoming Resistance (246)
• Criminal Harassment (264)
• Uttering Threats (264.1)
• Common Assault (266)
• Assault with a Weapon (267)
• Assault Causing Bodily Harm (267)
• Aggravated Assault (268)
• Assault Peace Officer (270)
• Kidnapping and Unlawful Confinement (279)
• Trafficking in Persons (279.01-04)
• Hostage Taking (279.1)
• Abduction of a Young Person (280-286)
• Extortion (346)
• Intimidation (423)
• Animal Cruelty (445, 445.1)

Homicide

• Murder and Manslaughter (234, 235, 236)
• Attempted Murder (239)

Gaming and Lottery Offences

• Gambling Offences
• Lottery Offences

Hate Speech and Libel

• Defamatory Libel (299, 300)
• Public Incitement of Hatred (319)

Administration of Justice Offences

• Breach of Public Trust (122)
• Disobeying a Court Order (127)
• Breach of Undertaking, Recognizance, or Probation (145, 733)
• Failure to Attend Court or Appear (145)
• Obstruction of a Peace Officer (129)
• Disarming a Peace Officer (270.1)
• Obstructing Justice (139)
• Escape from Lawful Custody (145(1), 146, 147)
• Prison Breach (144)
• Perjury (131)
• Fabricating Evidence (137)
• Giving a False Sworn Statement (134)
• Public Mischief (140)
• Intimidation of a Justice System Participant (423.1)
• Contempt of Court (708)

Motor Vehicle Offences

• Dangerous Operation of a Motor Vehicle (249)
• Flight from Peace Officer (249.1)
• Failure to Stop at Scene of Accident (252)
• Impaired Driving and Over 80 (253)
• Refusal (254)
• Driving while Disqualified (259)

Property Offences

• Robbery (344)
• Break and Enter (348)
• Unlawfully in a Dwelling (349)
• Possession of Break-in Instruments (351)
• Forceable Entry (74)
• Motor Vehicle Theft (333.1)
• Theft (334)
• Possession of Stolen Property (355)
• Fraud (380)
• Fraudulent Concealment (341)
• Breach of Trust (336)
• Forgery (366, 367, 368)
• Mischief (430)
• Arson (433, 434)
• Obtaining Property by False Pretences
• Theft and Forgery of a Credit Card
• Counterfeiting (449, 450, 452)
• Fraudulently Obtaining Food (364)
• Unauthorized Use of Computer (342.1)
• Identity Theft

Corruption Offences

• Bribery (119, 120)
• Frauds on the Government (121)

Drug Offences

• Drug Trafficking (Schedule I) (5 CDSA)
• Drug Trafficking (Schedule II) (5 CDSA)
• Drug Trafficking (Schedule III) (5 CDSA)
• Drug Trafficking (Schedule IV) (5 CDSA)
• Drug Possession (4 CDSA)
• Drug Production (7 CDSA)
• Importing and Exporting Drugs (6 CDSA)

See Also

• Canadian Criminal Law/Offences
• Canadian Criminal Sentencing/Cases
• Canadian Criminal Sentencing/Offences/Offences by Penalty