Lombard/Verbal diathesis

The reference orthography for this page of Lombard course is New Lombard orthography

In Lombard there are the active, passive and reflexive diathesis. In the eastern dialects and in the dialect of the town of Tortona the diathesis interrogative is also preserved.

Active form

As for the active form, refer to what has already been said in fist paragraph about the construction of the sentence. We add to what has already been said the chance of use an impersonal active form.

Impersonal form

The structure makes use of the impersonal pronominal particle se (or sa depending on the dialect), there is not a subject, since it is an impersonal form. One can at most put the subject weak universal a (or its dialectal variants, except for southern Lombard dialects such as Lomellino and Pavese in which it is not used). The verb is conjugated in the 3rd person singular.

( Weak subject personal pronoun ) + impersonal particle "se" + Predicate + (Direct object) + (Other complemnts)

Example (in Milanese dialect):

A se mangia ben

(Translated into English: One eats well)

In an outdated form the pronouns "a" and "se" could be combined to constitute "es"

Example (in Milanese dialect):

Es mangia ben

Often the state complements in place start with the phrase :

Example (in Milanese dialect):

A Napoli a se mangia ben

(Translated into English: In Naples one eat well)

In some dialects, including Milanese, weak personal pronouns is not mandatory and it is commons to write so:

Example (in Milanese dialect):

A Napoli se mangia ben

Passive form

In the passive form the subject is who undergoes the action that is carried out by the complement of agent or efficient cause introduced by the preposition “de”/”da”.

Sentences in active form with transitive verbs can be transformed into the passive form by placing the direct object of the active form to play the role of the subject in the passive form and the subject of the active form to play the role of the complement of agent or efficient cause (introduced by the preposition de) in passive form. In terms of terminology, the distinction between an agent and an efficient cause is mostly formal because we speak of an "agent" when he is someone who performs an action and an "efficient cause" when there is not one who performs an action but instead there’s just a reason for what happens. The predicate in the passive form is constructed using vesser as auxiliary verb (or sometimes also vesser for style reasons) in the tense of interest followed by the past participle of the verb and if the subject is plural also the past participle must be in the plural form.

There is another way to construct the passive form, but in an impersonal form through the passivating se.

Affirmative sentences

Typical structure (sentences in the moods indicative, subjunctive or conditional)

Strong subject + Weak subject + Predicate + (Complement of agent/efficient cause) + Other complements

Weak subject + Predicate + Strong subject + (Complement of agent/efficient cause) + Other complements

Examples (in Milanese dialect

Un pom l' è stad mangiad del March in cà

or

L' è stad mangiad un pom del March in cà

(translated into English: An apple and was eaten by Mark at home)

• The complement of term (or that of advantage) can be expressed by a pronominal particle) placed before the predicate
  

Weak subject + pronominal particle of complement of term+ Predicate + (strong subject) + (complement of agent/efficient cause) + other complements

Example (in Milanese dialect)

El m' è stad imprestad on liber de lu

(translated into English: A book was lent to me by him / I was lent a book by him)

In Lombard language it is also allowed the reinforcement of the complement of term (or that of advantage) at the end of the sentence through "a + pronouns personal subject strong" when you want to mark it.

Example (in Milanese dialect)

El m' è stad imprestad un liber a mì

Typical structure (sentences in the moods infinitive, gerund or imperative in 1 or 2 person )

Predicate + (Complement of agent/efficient cause+ Other complements

Vesser cagnad d'on can

(translated into English: Being bitten by a dog)

Imperative sentences

Typical structure (put the subject at the end!)

(che)³ + Weak subject³+ Predicate + (Complement of agent/efficient cause) + (Other complements) + (strong subject)

3 : just in the third person singular or plural

Negative sentences

The construction of negative sentences is the same as affirmative sentences, the difference is that the predicate is in negative form. To make the form become negative we add the negating adverb “minga” (or its dialectal variants):
?" 'minga " is put:

1) Between the auxiliary verb ''vesser and the past participle: Examples (in Milanese dialect):

Affirmative: Lù l' è stad cagnad

(Translated into English: He was bitten)

Negative: Lu l' è stad minga cagnad

(Translated into English: He was not bitten)

2) Before a verb in the infinitive form it follows a preposition: Examples (in milanese dialect):

Affirmative: per vesser cagnad

(translated into English: to be bitten)

Negative: per minga vesser cagnad

(translated into English: to not be bitten)

4) applying it to the modal verb, if the verb is preceded by a modal verb: Examples (in milanese dialect):

Affirmative: Lu l’ ha podud vesser cagnad

(Translated into English: He could be bitten)

Negative: Lu el podeva minga vesser cagnad

(translated into English: He could not be bitten)

Other types of sentences

No need to go on explaining as the construction is similar to the one that was explained for the sentences in the Active form always exchanging the direct object with the subject and converting the verb into passive form.

Attention: for affirmative sentences in the presence of interrogative pronouns (Che, chi), in the cases where interrogative pronouns act as subject, in the corresponding negative sentences they play the role as a complement of agent/efficient cause. They must always be at the beginning of the sentence, but with the preposition de (or its dialectal variants) in front.

Example: active form (in Milanese dialect)

Chi el te varda?

Chi l'è che 'l te varda ?

(translated into English: Who ‘s looking at you?)

The corresponding passive form will be (in Milanese dialect )

De chi te see vardad ?

De chi l'è che te see vardad ?

(translated into English: Who are you being watched by?)

Impersonal passive form

The structure makes use of the passivating se (or sa depending on the dialect), there is not a subject, since it is an impersonal form. At most, you can put the universal weak subject "a" (with the exception of southern Lombard dialects such as Paves, Lomellin and Oltrepadan)

( Weak subject universal pronoun ) + Passivating particle "se" + Predicate + (Direct object) + (other complements)

Examples (in Milanes dialect):

A se dis inscì

(translated into English: So they say. / It is said so.)

In an archaic form the pronouns "a" and "se" could be joined to form "es".

Example (in Milanese dialect):

Es dis inscì

(translated into English: So they say. / It is said so.)

Often complements of state in place are placed at the beginning of the sentence:

Example (in Milanese dialect):

A Milan a se dis inscì

(translated into English: In Milan they say so.)

In many dialects, including Milanes, the weak pronoun unversale is not mandatory, and then we use to write:

Example (in Milanese dialect):

A Milan se dis inscì.

'Warning: The construction with pronominal particles the direct object or the complement of term is not used. We prefer to write the complements in extended form or rather use the passive personal form.

Reflexive form without direct object

The reflexive sentence without direct object is the sentence in which the subject and the direct object are the same entity.

Typical structure (sentences in the indicative, subjunctive or conditional moods)

The structure makes use of the reflexive / impersonal pronominal particle se'.

In Western Lombard:

(Strong subject) + (Weak subject) + reflexive particle "se"¹ + Predicate + (Other complements)

1 in some dialects, such as Milanese and others of Southern Lombardy, only for the 1st person singular, the particle"me"/"ma"/"am" is used instead of "se".

Examples: (To indicate the name in Lombard you can use the reflexive verb "ciamàss" as in these examples)

Lu el se ciama Genesio ... ( MI )

(translated into English: His name is Genesius)

Mi se ciami Genesio ... ( Lagh )

(translated into English: My name is Genesius)

Mi me ciami Genesio ... ( MI )

(translated into English: My name is Genesius)

In Eastern Lombard:

(Strong subject) + Reflexive partcle "se" + (Weak subject) + Predicate + (Other complements)

Example:

Lu se 'l ciama Genesio ... ( BG )

(translated into English: His name is Genesius)

Typical structure (sentences in the infinitive mood, gerund mood or imperative mood in 1st or 2nd persona)

The reflexive form, in all dialects except Bregajot and Poaschiavino by adding the reflexive pronominal particles in the form of a suffix (see module about pronominal particles).

In the Bregajot e Poschiavino dialects it is instead constructed as for the indicative, the subjunctive and the conditional moods.

Reflexive form with direct object

Typical structure (sentences in the indicative, subjunctive or conditional moods)

The reflexive sentence with direct object is the sentence in which the object is something owned by the subject. "De facto" the possessive pronoun is put in place of the possessive adjectives applied to the direct object.

In Western Lombard:

(Strong subject) + (Weak subject) + Reflexive particle "se"¹ + Predicate + Direct object + (Other complements)

1 in Milanese and Pavese dialects and other dialects of Southern Lombardy, just for the 1st person singular the particle "me" is used intesad of "se"

Examples:

Lu el se neta i pee ... ( MI Lagh )

(translated into English: He cleans his feet.)

Mi se neti i pee ... ( Lagh )

(translated into English: I clean my feet)

Mi me neti i pee ... ( MI )

(translated into English: I clean my feet)

You can also make a reinforcement through the possessive adjective.

Examples:

Lu el se neta i sò pee ... ( MI Lagh )

(translated into English: He cleans his feet)

In eastern Lombard:

Strong subject + Reflexive particle "se" + (Weak subject) + Predicate + Direct object + (Other complements)

Examples:

Lu se 'l neta i pee ... ( BG )

(translated into English: He cleans his feet)

It must also be said that in Bergamasque dialect in reflexive form there are also specific obligatory weak subjects for the 1st person singular and the 2nd plural.

Typical structure (sentences in infinitive mood, gerund mood e imperative mood in 1st or 2nd person)

The reflexive form, in all dialects except Bregajot and Poschiavino is constructed by adding the reflexive pronominal particles in the form of a suffix (see module about pronominal particles).

In the Bregajot and Poschiavino dialects it is instead constructed as for the indicative, the subjunctive and the conditional moods.

Seemingly reflexive verbs

In Lombard there are verbs that are constructed as if they were reflexive, but actually they play the role of non-reflective verbs because the action is not transmitted to the subject but to a complement. They are usually intransitive but rarely can they even be transitive, for example cucàss, or even play the role of verb having a modal fonzion for example refudàss.

Interrogative form

The interrogative form is preserved in the Eastern dialects, in which a suffix is added to the verbs in interrogative form, but it was once also present in the Western ones.

The structure of different types of interrogative sentences has already been described within the module about the construction of the sentence.